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reﬂect the actual occurrences measured in the ﬁeld. Rather

than a series of drops all at the same drop height, a series

should be constructed with different drop heights, because

that is how drops happen in actual handling. Such a series

might include several low heights, a few midlevel drops,

and one high drop. This is modeled on the actual hazard,

where high drop heights occur seldom, and lower drops

occur more often.

This level diversity technique is also valuable for

vibration testing. Data may be sorted by event amplitude

and grouped. The estimated actual time that vibration

occurred at each group level is then calculated. One

background level, which reﬂects most events recorded

may be combined with one of more higher level tests of

shorter durations. The time compression may be applied

to some or all test segments that result. This multilevel

test speciﬁcation should provide a more robust simula-

tion of the logistic environment hazard than a single-

level test.

The validation step is a potentially time-consuming,

but necessary, effort. During validation, the user com-

pares actual ﬁeld results with laboratory results and

makes any required adjustments. This may include se-

lected testing of products with known shipping histories.

Of particular interest would be products that have

exhibited repeatable, deﬁnable damage during transit.

A laboratory test that produces similar results is the

goal. If the test speciﬁcation under development achieves

this end, then it has demonstrated a degree of validity. A

several such test cases will increase the validity and

conﬁdence in this speciﬁcation. In general, exercise cau-

tion when using new test speciﬁcations that have not

undergone validation, especially in the evaluation of new

products and packages where no history is available.

All stages of the process, from observation through

validation, should be documented carefully. In this way,

future users may extend the development process to new

logistical operations or assess the need for additional

measurement and analysis efforts.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. D. Batz, and D. Young. ‘‘The Lighter the Package, the Higher

the Drop and Other Packaging Myths,’’ Proceedings of Dimen-

sions 06, ISTA, East Lansing, MI, 2006.

2. S. R. Pierce and D. E. Young, ‘‘Package Handling in Less-Than-

Truckload Shipments: Focused Simulation Measurement and

Test Development,’’ Proc. IoPP Educational Symp. Transport

Packaging, IoPP, Herndon, VA, 1996.

3. Young, D. and T. Baird. ‘‘The China Project,’’ Proceedings of

Dimensions 04, ISTA, East Lansing, MI, 2006.

4. ASTM International, 2008 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,

Vol. 15.09, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,

2008.

5. International Safe Transit Association, Project 3B, Interna-

tional Safe Transit Association, East Lansing, MI, 2009.

6. A. J. Curtis, N. G. Tinling, and H. T. Abstein, Selection and

Performance of Vibration Tests, SVM8, p 97, The Shock

and Vibration Information Center, USDOD, Washington, DC,

1971.

DRUMS, FIBER

GERALD A. GORDON

Sonoco Products Company,

Industrial Container Division,

Lombard, Illinois

Updated by Staff

INTRODUCTION

A ﬁber drum is a cylindrical container made with a side-

wall made of paper or paperboard having ends and

components made of similar or other materials such as

metal, plastic, plywood, or composite materials. It is made

by the convolute (not spiral) winding of multiple plies of

paperboard into a tubular body, to which are attached

headings that may be made from solid ﬁberboard, metal,

plastic, natural wood, or plywood. No single ply of the

sidewall may be less than 0.012 in. (0.30 mm) thick. The

sidewall plies must be ﬁrmly glued together and may

include protective layer(s) of metal foil, plastic, or other

appropriate materials. The outer ply may be water-

proofed, or, at the least, must be sized to resist the effect

of casual water. Fiber drums provide high strength and

low tare weight for the packaging of industrial commod-

ities. A ﬁber drum intended for heavy-duty use may weigh

as little as half that of a comparable steel drum.

Fiber drums are used globally and offer a strong, cost-

effective means for the packaging of solid granular pow-

der, paste, semiliquid, and liquid products. Fiber drums

were originally introduced as an alternative to the metal

drum and therefore had a circular cross section. In recent

years, drums with a square cross section and rounded

corners have become available. Fiber drums make up

about 30% of the industrial containers used in the United

States (1).

CONSTRUCTION

Sizes

Fiber drums are manufactured in a wide range of diameters

and capacities: in diameter from about 8-in. (200 mm) to

23 in. (584 mm) in 1

-in: (38-mm) increments, and in capa-

city from 0.75 gal (2.8 L) to 75 gal (285 L), with almost

inﬁnite variability, since capacity is controlled by the slit

width of the tube, which can be adjusted in

-in: (3-mm)

increments .

Stacking

The stacking strength of a ﬁber drum is determined by the

number of plies of paperboard in the sidewall. This

commonly varies from 4 plies for lightweight drums to

11 plies for large drums intended to carry heavy loads

(these ply counts are for 0.012-in. board; the increasingly

common use of heavier board requires fewer plies). The

stacking strength is also a function of the moisture con-

tent of the paperboard; the higher the humidity, the

lower the stacking strength. Taking these and other

368 DRUMS, FIBER

construction factors into account, the bottom drum in a

stack of large, heavy-duty ﬁber drums might safely sup-

port as much as 2000 lb (900 kg).

Linings and Barriers

The basic structure of a drum may be modiﬁed by the

insertion of a laminated barrier board (a sandwich made

from aluminum foil and/or polyethylene between two plies

of lightweight paperboard) into the sidewall to reduce the

moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR). Alternatively

(or sometimes additionally), a laminated integral lining

made of paperboard, plastic ﬁlm, and sometimes alumi-

num foil may be used as the interior surface of the tube, to

impart MVT resistance, oxygen transport resistance, and/

or chemical resistance to the drum. The plastic part of

such a laminated lining may include polyethylene (as

barrier layer or as adhesive for a different barrier),

polyester, poly(vinyl alcohol), silicone release lining, or a

laminate of a special barrier polymer with polyethylene. A

lightweight polyethylene lining or a loose polyethylene

bag is also frequently used in the packaging of dry

products to reduce MVTR. A ‘‘skin’’ (pigmented polyethy-

lene-coated board) or label (decorated stock) may be

wound as the outside ply of the drum, with the colored

plastic or decorated stock to the outside, to provide

protection from moisture or physical abuse, or to project

information, using the drum surface as a ‘‘billboard.’’

Table 1 shows that the MVTR of ﬁber drums may vary

over a factor in excess of 300, depending on lining or

barrier construction.

Adhesive

The adhesive most commonly used in the manufacture of

ﬁber drums is sodium silicate, or water glass. Silicate

adhesive has the advantages of low cost and general

effectiveness, but the disadvantage of being water-soluble,

and therefore producing drums with poor water resis-

tance. Thus, a silicate drum subjected to a 5-day exposure

in a water-spray test will lose about 90% of its stacking

strength.

For drums requiring moisture proof capability, poly

(vinyl acetate) (PVA) is used. There is also use of poly

(vinyl alcohol) and dextrin. The main requirements for the

adhesive are good wet tack and a quick setting speed. It is

important to use an adhesive with high solids content to

ensure that the amount of water added, as a consequence

of using the adhesive, is kept to a minimum.

Lids

Fiber drums are known as open top drums. This means

they have a lid that matches the diameter of the drum.

The lid can be made of wood, plastic, steel, or ﬁberboard.

The lid is held in place with a metal band, normally steel.

Tight head drums have tops that are permanently ﬁxed to

the body. These drums are made only from plastic or steel.

Steel lids are used in high performance speciﬁcations.

Tight end drums are used for liquids and semiliquid

products. Depending on the global manufacturer, there

is a preference for the lid material. In the United King-

dom, the popular choice is plastic (polyethylene). In the

United States the choice is split between plastic and

ﬁberboard. In order to assist in the stacking of drums

and in the stability of the stack of drums, it is usual for the

lids to be designed in such a way that they locate within

the base chimes of the drum on the next layer. For drums

that require an airtight seal, a gasket is incorporated into

the plastic or steel (1).

DRUM STYLES

Drums with Metal Chimes

Figure 1 shows the most common style of ﬁber drum, with

metal chimes on the top and bottom of the drum. These

chimes are mechanically formed during drum assembly to

attach the bottom heading to the sidewall (bottom inset)

and to provide an attachment site for a toggle-action

locking band to hold the cover onto the drum (top inset).

This drum style can provide the highest level of abuse

resistance and product protection by a ﬁber drum. Many

variations are commercially available for this versatile

drum style.

Drums for Packaging Liquids

If made with an interior lining, caulking compound in the

bottom juncture, and a gasketed steel or, preferably,

plastic cover, a metal-chime drum can be used for the

packaging of liquids, ranging from self-sealing latex ad-

hesives to water-based chemical solutions, to solvent-

based cleaners and ﬁberglass gelcoats. Such drums can

also be provided with a spun-on locking band to produce a

tight-head drum that provides an even better top seal. The

use of ﬁber drums to package liquids has grown signiﬁ-

cantly with advancements in lining materials and manu-

facturing processes that have expanded the holding

capabilities of the drums.

Table 1. Water-Vapor Transmission Rate of Chime-Style

Fiber Drums

Construction Weight

Increase

Silicate adhesive, no lining 10,000+ (est.)

Silicate adhesive, polyethylene barrier (0.7 mil) 600

Silicate adhesive, polyethylene lining (2 mils) 350

Flame activated polyethylene adhesive, no

lining

175

Silicate adhesive, aluminum-foil barrier 125

Silicate adhesive, polyethylene/aluminum foil

lining

Total weight increase of a desiccant inside a 55-gal ﬁber drum with rubber

gasketed steel cover, in grams of water per 30 days, with the drum exposed

to 1001F and 90% RH. The values listed above are for comparative purposes

only and should not be understood as absolute values that would be picked

up by a speciﬁc product.

DRUMS, FIBER 369

Composite Fiber Drums

Figures 2 and 3, respectively, show open-head and tight-

head composite ﬁber drums intended for the packaging of

liquids. Some drums have a self-supporting plastic insert,

or inner receptacle, inside each drum to contain the liquid.

The inner receptacle is an integral part of the packaging

and is ﬁlled, shipped, and emptied as such.

Straight-Sided Drums

Figure 4 shows the straight-sided chime of a drum in-

tended for the packaging of hot-melt adhesives and other

products that are dispensed by use of a platen pump. Since

a close-ﬁtting platen must slide into the drum to dispense

the product, the inverted groove design typical of other

drums with metal chimes cannot be used. Instead of

reducing the diameter at the groove to provide purchase

for a lock band as in the standard design, the chime and

ﬁber tube of a straight-sided drum must be expanded

outward by about 8%. Since paper typically can be elon-

gated only about 3% before failure, the development of this

drum style was not a simple task. This drum style may

also be made with two tops (i.e., two removable headings)

so that when the platen pump has removed as much

product as it can reach, the drum may be inverted, the

bottom removed, and the residual heel removed and

placed on top of the next drum for dispensing.

Drums for Packaging Wire

Figure 5 shows a drawing of a drum designed for the

packaging and dispensing of wire. The drum is made with

a central core, around which the wire is coiled and from

which it is dispensed.

Drums for the Aseptic Packaging of Foods

The aseptic packaging of foods at ambient temperatures

requires a containment system that provides a good

barrier to both oxygen and biological contaminants that

might cause food spoilage. In this system the food is

packaged in a high-strength polyester/polyethylene/alu-

minum-foil bag, which is then placed inside the drum. The

drum itself is of heavy-ply construction, frequently using

weatherproof adhesive, to allow outdoor storage. The

drum functions to provide protection from mechanical

abuse and moisture. The bag provides the barrier to

chemical and/or biological degradation of the food (see

also Aseptic Packaging).

Drums without Chimes

Figure 6 shows the simplest of drum designs: a ﬁber tube

with steel or plastic headings attached by stitching, tap-

ing, adhesively bonding, or the use of mechanical clips.

The top and bottom headings are designed to interlock to

facilitate stacking. This inexpensive drum design, gener-

ally with an inner polyethylene bag, is commonly used for

the packaging of such low-cost products as detergent and

ice-melt compound in relatively small sizes.

Figure 1. Drum with metal chimes.

Figure 2. Open-head composite ﬁber drum.

370 DRUMS, FIBER

Nestable Fiber Drums

A striking variation of this drum style is a nestable ﬁber

drum. A frustroconical tube is made by the winding of

precut sheets of paperboard, one for each ply. An integral

polyethylene lining and plastic headings (adhesively

bonded on the bottom, taped on the top) complete the

structure. The advantage of this construction lies in the

reduction of shipping cost and storage space for empty

drums, but at the sacriﬁce of some stacking strength. This

drum design was developed for the storage and transport

of hazardous medical waste for incineration.

All-Fiber Constructions

Drums made only from ﬁberboard have somewhat greater

structural integrity than do the chimeless drums de-

scribed above. As shown in Figure 7, in the manufacture

of such drums the bottom-end portion of a tube is notched

and/or folded in and is then covered inside and out with

ﬁber disks that are stitched and/or glued to produce a

Figure 4. Crimp of straight-sided drum.

Figure 3. Tight-head composite ﬁber drum.

Figure 5. Drum for packaging wire.

DRUMS, FIBER 371

strong and secure heading. Covers, designed for slip ﬁt,

are made in the same way, but from a short piece of tube.

Drums of this style are available in several design

variations. The simplest has a drum bottom with a cover

of somewhat larger diameter, which slides over the drum,

leaving a step or ridge at the juncture between cover and

drum. The cover is often taped in place, but this may leave

an unsightly ridge. This drum design can also be made

with a tube and two covers, often used for the shipment of

rolls of plastic or other materials that need protection to

prevent damage to the roll edge.

In a somewhat stronger all-ﬁber design, the drum body

is composed of two components (Figure 7): a tube that is

glued into a somewhat shorter shell of somewhat larger

diameter. The cover, having the same diameter as the

shell, slides on over the exposed portion of the tube,

leaving no ridge at its juncture with the shell. In a fourth

variation of this style, the drum body is squared off to

provide for more efﬁcient use of storage space. The trade-

off for this gain is some reduction in stacking strength as

compared to the right circular cylindrical form of other

drums. The primary application for all-ﬁber drums is for

the packaging of dry powders, frequently with an inner

polyethylene bag.

REGULATIONS

The manufacture and use of ﬁber drums are regulated by

a wide variety of governmental and nongovernmental

national and international agencies.

NMFC and UFC

The National Motor Freight Classiﬁcation (NMFC) and

the Uniform Freight Classiﬁcation (UFC) are nongovern-

mental agencies concerned with the shipment of all com-

modities, hazardous or not, by common carrier by highway

and rail, respectively, in the United States. As part of their

function of setting freight rates for such shipments, these

agencies also set construction speciﬁcations for the packa-

ging to be used.

Other

The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), the Inter-

national Maritime Organization (IMO), which publishes

the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code

(IMDG), the International Civil Aviation Organization

(ICAO), the International Air Transport Association

(IATA), and RID/ADR, the organizations regulating inter-

national shipments of dangerous goods by road and rail in

Europe have several things in common. First, they are all

concerned only with the shipment of hazardous materials

(the transport of dangerous goods). As far as these agencies

are concerned, nonhazardous materials may be shipped in

any packaging that the shipper desires to use. Second, they

have all based their regulations, to a large extent, on the

UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous

Goods (Orange Book). Fiber drums that conform with the

UN Packaging Group I, II, or III Standards are often used

to transport hazardous products in solid/dry form. Fiber

drums cannot be used to transport hazardous liquids (1).

APPLICATIONS

Fiber drums are commonly used for the packaging of a

broad range of products, from apple juice to zinc powder.

Figure 6. Drum without chimes.

Figure 7. All-ﬁber drum.

372 DRUMS, FIBER

Major markets include dry and solid chemicals, liquid and

hot-melt adhesives, paints and coatings, liquid textile

chemicals, such foods as tomato paste and dried onions,

and rolls of plastic ﬁlm and carpeting. Fiber drums are

also used for the transport and dispensing of electrical

wire and for the transport of hazardous wastes to incin-

erators and landﬁlls.

RECYCLING

Fiber drums can be either reused, the component materials

recovered and recycled, or disposed of in an energy-to-

waste system. Internationally agreed identiﬁcation code

data and reycling logo can be applied to drum side-

walls and base that indicate their composition (2). This

information is used as a guide to recycling. Fiber drum

manufacturers can supply information and support on

environmental and waste management issues.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. A. Gordon, ‘‘Drums, Fiber’’ in A. J. Brody and K. S. Marsh, eds.,

The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging, John Wiley & Sons, New

York, 1997, pp. 310–315.

Cited Publications

1. Fibrestar Drums, Ltd., ‘‘Fibre Drums’’ in M. J. Kirwan, ed.,

Paper and Paperboard Technology, Blackwell Publishing,

London, 2005.

2. SEFFI, European Drum Association, www.sefﬁ.org, 2004.

DRUMS, PLASTIC

BRUNO POETZ

ERNEST WURZER

Mauser Werke GmBH,

sseldorf, Germany

Chemicals and other industrial products are shipped

mainly in pails and drums. In most parts of the world, 1-

to 6-gal (4- to 23-L) open-top plastic containers, generally

injection-molded (see Injection molding), are called pails

(see Pails, plastic). In North America, 1- to 6-gal (4- to 23-

L) closed-head (i.e., bung-type) blow-molded containers

(see Blow molding) are called pails as well, or jerrycans.

The term jerrycan is often used in other countries to

describe bung-type containers in the 1- to 16-gal (4- to

61-L) size range. In general, however, the word drum

applies to open- and closed-head containers larger than

6 gal (23 L). In North America, the standard drum sizes

are 15, 20, 30, 35, 55, and 57 gal (57, 76, 114, 132, 208,

216 L). In Western Europe and most other parts of the

world, standard drum sizes are 30, 60, 120, and 216 L

(roughly 8, 16, 32, 55, and 57 gal).

Polyethylene liners for steel and ﬁber drums were

blow-molded and rotationally molded in the United States

and Western Europe in the 1950s, but there were no self-

supporting plastic alternatives until the 1960s. In 1963,

U.S. production of all-plastic 5-gal (19-L) pails and 16-gal

(61-L) drums began. In western Europe, production of 16-

gal open-top and bung-type drums started at about the

same time, and a 32-gal (121-L) open-top drum soon

followed. The introduction of all-plastic 55-gal (208-L)

drums did not come until the early 1970s. The develop-

ment of large all plastic drums took many years because

they required special resins and processing equipment.

Market acceptance has also required special designs.

Plastic containers have excellent performance charac-

teristics. They are strong, lightweight, durable, corrosion-

free, and weather-resistant and, in accordance with

international transport regulations, are authorized to

carry a great number of hazardous materials. Most plastic

drums are used for chemicals, but they are also used in the

food-processing industry for the shipment and storage of

products that include concentrated fruit juice, vegetable

pulps, and condiments.

RESINS

Self-supporting plastic drums are made of extra-high-

molecular-weight (EHMW) high-density polyethylene (see

Polyethylene, high-density). The molecular weight of these

resins is so high that their ﬂow rates cannot be expressed

in terms of melt index (MI) as measured according to

ASTM 1238, Condition E (44 psi or 303 kPa). The MI of

relatively low-molecular-weight HDPE injection-molding

resins ranges from 1 to 20 g/10 min; the MI of higher-

molecular-weight blow-molding bottle resins is less than

1 g/10 min. Measuring the ﬂow of EHMV resins requires

higher pressure (Condition F, 440 psi or 3 MPa), and the

values obtained are expressed in terms of high-load-melt

index (HLMI). The HLMI of resins used for self-supporting

drums range from 1.5 to 12 g/10 min. Design trends in

plastic drums are related to the availability of EHMW

resins. In the United States, 10 HLMI became the standard

resin for drums with separate plastic- or metal-handling

rings. The development of drums with integral handling

rings required higher-molecular-weight resins (HLMI 1.5–

3) that were available in Western Europe before they were

produced in the United States.

All properties of polyethylene depend on three impor-

tant factors: molecular weight (length of molecule chains),

density (degree of crystallinity), and molecular weight

distribution (distribution of longer and shorter chains).

As molecular weight increases (and MI or HLMI de-

creases), toughness and resistance to stress cracking

increases. The tradeoff for these improved properties is

difﬁculty in processing. HDPE has crystallinity of 60–80%

at density of 0.942–0.965 g/cm

. (In contrast, LDPE has

crystallinity of 40–50% at density of 0.918–0.930 g/cm

As density increases, toughness and stress crack resis-

tance decrease, but stiffness, hardness, and resistance to

oils and chemicals improves. Molecular-weight distribu-

tion is related primarily to processing.

DRUMS, PLASTIC 373

Chemical Resistance

Chemical resistance is particularly important in drum

design. All 55-gal (208-L) drums use EHMW high-density

resins, but there are variations within that category.

Drums used for chemicals that are compatible with

HDPE generally use relatively high-molecular-weight

(e.g., HMLI 1–3) and relatively high-density (i.e., W0.95-

g/cm

) resins. Where stress cracking is a potential pro-

blem, relatively low-molecular-weight (e.g., HLMI 6–10)

and relatively low-density (i.e., o0.95-g/cm

) resins give

better performance. Although no chemical dissolves poly-

ethylene (particularly high-molecular-weight polyethy-

lene), the effects of certain chemicals include strong

swelling action by penetration into the container walls,

stress cracking, oxidation, degradation by destruction of

the macromolecules, or permeation through the container

wall. Resistance tests should be made based on laboratory

samples and on containers in use.

The resistance to stress cracking must be examined

before using self-supporting plastic drums. The ESCR test

prescribed in ASTM D1693 can be used for material

selection, but tests must be performed on ﬁnished contain-

ers. This can be done by storing a drum ﬁlled with 5%

surfactant for more than 3 months at temperatures higher

than 401C. Stress cracking may occur if there are stresses

in the wall. Tensile and compressive stresses can be

avoided by using an optimum wall-thickness distribution

in production or in the design of the blow-molding tool.

They may also occur when the products contain surface-

active substances such as wetting agents at concentra-

tions up to 20%. HDPE’s resistance to stress cracking

depends on the density and the molecular weight of the

raw materials. As density increases, ESCR decreases.

As molecular weight increases, ESCR increases.

High-molecular-weight blow-molding resins with densi-

ties of 0.947–0.954 g/cm

have a high degree of stress-

crack resistance and are ideal for drums (1).

HPDE drums can safely package a wide variety of

chemicals. Uses within the chemical industry include

dairy, agricultural, electronic, specialty, photographic,

and oil-well applications, as well as those for organic and

inorganic chemicals and natural ﬂavorings.

Permeability

HDPE is susceptible to permeation by certain chemicals.

Special attention should be paid to inorganic chlorinated

hydrocarbons (e.g., per- and trichloroethylene) and aro-

matic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene, and xylene).

Normally, inorganic chlorinated or aromatic hydrocarbons

cannot be packed in HDPE drums owing to permeation,

but the permeation rate can be reduced by several meth-

ods of surface modiﬁcation (see Surface modiﬁcation).

Within the HDPE family, high-molecular-weight grades

have relatively high resistance to permeation. The risk is

also reduced by using relatively thick walls.

UV Resistance

The service life of HDPE containers cannot be accurately

predicted because it largely depends on climatic conditions.

Different colorings (see Colorants), especially black (with

carbon black), blue, green, white, and gray, increase re-

sistance to weathering and protect the product from light.

Depending on climatic conditions, additional UV stabili-

zers must be added.

DESIGN

Closed-Head Drums

Closed-head drums, also called tight-head drums, are

available in different designs, with 2-in. (51-mm) and

3/4-in. (19-mm) bungs, in 15-, 30-, and 55-gal 57-, 114-,

and 208-L) sizes. They are used where handling equipment

is available to accommodate them. This is important

because large self-supporting drums are designed to re-

place composite steel drums (steel with plastic liners or

coatings), for which mechanical handling equipment is

available worldwide. In the United States, plastic drums

were initially designed with metal handling rings so that

the drums could package heavy liquids (e.g., up to 1.8 g/cm

or 825 lb/55 gal) and still be handled by traditional steel-

drum handling equipment, particularly the ‘‘parrot’s beak.’’

A different approach was taken in Europe and other

parts of the world, where the L-ring drum was 30- and 55-

gal (114- and 208-L) capacities has become the standard.

L-ring drums are produced by blow-molding the drum and

integral rings in one step. The use of this conﬁguration

required the development of a wider parrot’s beak, and at

ﬁrst it was approved only for liquids with densities less

than 1.2 g/cm

or 550 lb/55 gal. The L-ring is now approved

for heavier liquids.

Open-Top Drums

For general applications, open-top drums are provided in

8-, 15-, 30-, and 55-gal (30-, 51-, 114-, and 208-L) sizes. The

advantages of the standard open-top drum are easy

handling, absolute tightness, good stacking properties,

and high radial rigidity. They are used most often for

water-based products such as glues, softeners, and liquid

soaps, as well as for foodstuffs. The standard open-top

drum can be cleaned easily and reused.

SHIPMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

International regulations for transport of dangerous goods

(hazardous materials in the United States) are one of the

central issues regarding the use of plastic drums because

of heightened worldwide concern for environmental pro-

tection and the increasing number and volume of danger-

ous goods being shipped. HDPE is a safe and durable

material for shipping dangerous goods.

United Nations Regulations

International regulations concerning packaging tests

for hazardous materials are contained in the United Na-

tions Transport of Dangerous Goods (2) and in the Inter-

national Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code),

which regulates substances shipped overseas. The

374 DRUMS, PLASTIC

recommendations do not specify how a package is to be

made. They stipulate package-performance tests for each

dangerous substance and modiﬁcation of the test proce-

dures based on the degree of hazard and some physical

properties of the substance. They require a certiﬁcation

mark to show that the package has passed the tests. Self-

supporting plastic drums can be used for a wide variety of

dangerous substances. A typical drum marking under

these regulations would be

UN ¼1H1=Y:1:8=150=84=D=Mauser 824

where UN = United Nations; 1H1 = plastic drum, small

opening; Y.1.8 = Group II products up to 1.8 g/cm

;

150 = test pressure, kPa; 84 = year of production; D = FRG;

Mauser = producer; and 824 = registration number.

U.S. Regulations

The Materials Transportation Bureau (MTB) of the De-

partment of Transportation (DOT) has expanded Speciﬁ-

cation 34 (CFR, Title 49, Part 178.19) to include 55-gal

(208-L) plastic drums (3). Previously, only drums of up to

30 gal were included, and 55-gal (208-L) drums needed

special exemptions. The revision eliminates the need for

those exemptions. They are now marked DOT-34-55. Some

familiar commodities have been written into the regula-

tions with no restrictions, but many of the chemical

listings in Part 173.24(d) prescribe channel compatibility

and permeation tests. Reference to speciﬁc types of poly-

ethylene has been deleted from the most recent revision.

Minimum wall thickness is speciﬁed, but this does not

create signiﬁcant differences between drum construction

in the United States and other countries.

European Regulations

European regulations for rail and road transport of ha-

zardous materials in plastic containers up to 250 L (66 gal)

include testing procedures based on test data obtained

with model liquids such as acetic acid, nitric acid, water,

white spirit, surface-active agent, and n-butyl acetate. On

the basis of the dangerous properties of these materials,

all other dangerous substances can be approved and

assimilated as long as their individual requirements are

taken into account in testing. Plastic containers are

included in the packaging regulations as follows: up to

15 gal (57 L) for Class-1 dangerous substances (very

dangerous); up to 55 gal (208-L) for Classes 2 (dangerous)

and 3 (less dangerous). Apart from the requirements

concerning approval of the containers, quality assurance

in production plays an important role in the safe trans-

portation of dangerous goods.

Plastic drums will continue to gain importance, parti-

cularly if worldwide standardization occurs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruno Poetz and Ernest Wurzer, ‘‘Drums, Plastic’’ in M. Bakker,

ed., The Wiley Packaging Encyclopedia Technology, 1st edition,

John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986, pp. 247–249.

Cited Publications

1. D. L. Peters, P. E. Campbell, and B. T. Morgan, ‘‘High Mole-

cular Weight High Density Polyethylene Powder for Extrusion

Blow Molding of Drums and Other Large Parts’’ in Proceedings

42nd SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1984,

Society of Plastics Engineers, Inc., Brookﬁeld, CT, 1984, p. 939.

2. ‘‘General Recommendations on Packing,’’ United Nations

Transport of Dangerous Goods—Recommendations of the Com-

mittee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, 3rd

revised edition, United Nations, New York, 1984, Chapter 9.

3. Fed. Reg. 49(116), 24684 (June 14, 1984) and 49(199), 40033

(October 12, 1984).

DRUMS/PAILS, STEEL

RICHARD B. NORMENT

Steel Shipping Container

Institute, Washington, DC

Despite centuries of innovation, no one has devised a more

useful and adaptable medium-sized container for liquids

and semisolids than a cylindrical container. Its shape,

based on the circle, provides maximum strength; when

fully laden, it can be tipped over and rolled. Early ocean

shippers employed heavy, easily breakable clay and cera-

mics. They knew smelting and metalworking, but evi-

dently could not produce metal containers much larger

than pots and pans. From the Middle Ages until recent

times, the standard container material was wood, usually

oak, formed into metal-bound, stave-constructed barrels

and kegs (see Barrels). The wooden barrel had no weight

advantage but was far stronger and could be manufac-

tured anywhere of materials widely available at low cost.

Design differed little from the early jars, featuring the

same bilged sides for maximum strength. In almost every

trading nation, the wooden barrel reigned as the universal

shipping container for liquids and semisolids until the late

19th century, when the ﬁrst steel barrels appeared in

Europe.

Impetus for the invention and development of the

modern steel drum had begun years earlier with the Great

Oil Rush of 1859. Oil-drilling technology improved so

rapidly that by 1869, U.S. wells were producing

4,800,000 barrels (7.6 10

) a year. That introduced a

much tougher problem: how to store and ship the oil. The

only container available was the wooden barrel. Demand

soon outstripped the production capacity of the cooperage

ﬁrms, and oak became scarce and very expensive. The

immediate solution was the development of pipelines,

railroad tank cars, and the tank truck. But for smaller

packages, oil-industry shippers still had to struggle along

for another 40 years with the time-honored wooden barrel.

Kerosene was the most important barreled product. The

wooden barrel’s chief problem was leakage. Designed to

hold 50 gal (0.189 m

), it commonly lost enough per trip to

arrive at its destination containing only about 42 gal

(0.159 m

), a ﬁgure that has remained the standard

‘‘barrel’’ measurement of the oil industry.

DRUMS/PAILS, STEEL 375

A few years after their development in Europe, the ﬁrst

steel barrels were produced commercially in the United

States by Standard Oil at Bayonne, NJ, in 1902. Con-

structed from 12 to 14-gauge terne steel, they were heavy,

clumsy, bilged affairs with riveted or soldered side seams

and were anything but leakproof. Extremely rugged,

many of them lasted 20–30 years. They were also expen-

sive compared with wooden barrels. Despite the need,

steel barrels were slow to catch on; yet technical develop-

ments came rapidly. In about 1907, the welded side seam

was introduced, which curtailed the leakage problems of

riveted barrels and reduced costs. Shortly afterward, the

ﬁrst true 55-gal (208-L) drum was introduced, with its

characteristic straight sides contrasting markedly with

the bilged barrel. Rolling hoops were introduced soon

thereafter, both expanded and attached, with the latter

utilizing an I-bar section. The mechanical ﬂange was

invented after 1910. These improvements were far-reach-

ing and gave the new container added advantages. Among

them was lighter weight, which reduced shipping costs

and reduced the amount of steel required. The new drum

design permitted use of 16- and 18-gauge steels instead of

the far heavier gauges used previously. These drum

developments were followed in 1914 by the ﬁrst true steel

5-gal (18.9-L) pail featuring the ﬁrst lug cover.

The use of steel containers grew slowly before 1914,

despite their cost, weight, and safety advantages over

wooden containers. The advent of World War I marked

the beginning of the end for the wooden barrel, along with

the eventual dominance of the steel drum and pail.

Wartime demand also spurred many improvements in

manufacturing techniques and equipment. After the war,

many innovations appeared, including pouring pails, agi-

tator drums for paints, and new, colorful decorating

techniques. Manufacturers began to use steel containers

for products other than petroleum products and chemi-

cals. Toward the end of the 1930s, the steel-container

industry started gearing up for a second wartime effort.

This time, however, the demands were far more stringent,

requiring fuel containers for a highly mechanized war on

more than one front. Innovation took a back seat to

production considerations as war machines on the ground

and in the air consumed vast amounts of fuel and chemi-

cals. The 55-gal (208-L) 18- and 16-gauge drums were

indispensable to the fuel supply of island bases and

assaults in the Paciﬁc, frontline mechanized operations

in Europe, and to air and ground operations in East Asia.

Apart from its ruggedness, the fact that a cylindrical drum

could be rolled by one man was an important feature.

Although a downturn in steel drum and pail production

occurred at the end of World War II, it was of short

duration. Resumption of business created a demand

from industry, agriculture, and consumers. The accelera-

tion in chemical and pharmaceutical product development

and output provided new markets for steel drums and

pails. Demand for paints, lacquers and varnishes, adhe-

sives, inks, foodstuffs, and other products made the steel

shipping container industry one of the largest users of

cold-rolled sheet steel (approximately 1 million tons in

1993). Despite the introduction of competitive containers

made of other materials and of intermediate-bulk

containers, U.S. production increased from 2.4 million

drums in 1922 to 32.35 million drums in 1993.

Drums range in size from 13 to 110 gal (49 to 416 L), but

the 55-gal drums account for 80% of annual production.

Over 75% of all new drums are used for liquids, and the

rest are used for viscous and dry products. About 70% of

the market is accounted for by ﬁve broad product cate-

gories: chemicals (35%); petroleum products, including

lubricants (15%); paints, coatings, and solvents (10%);

food and pharmaceutical products (5%); and janitorial

supplies, cleaning compounds, and soaps (5%).

As a result of increased environmental awareness,

drum manufacturers, drum users, reconditioners, pail

and drum recyclers, and steelmills have developed pro-

grams to collect, recondition, and/or recycle used steel

drums and pails. In addition the recycled content of steel

has surpassed an average of 25% per container. In fact,

more steel is recycled than all other packaging materials

combined (53 million tons of steel scrap in 1993) (1). Thus,

choosing steel packaging conserves energy and natural

resources and reduces waste. Each year over 40 million

drums are reconditioned, thus prolonging the useful life of

steel drums.

The industry’s growing involvement in drum and pail

reclamation is an important factor in purchasing agents’

or packaging engineers’ decisions to select the appropriate

container for their company’s products.

DRUM AND PAIL CONSTRUCTION

Steel drums [13–110 gal (49.2–416 L)] and pails [1–12 gal

(3.8–45.4 L)] are generically fabricated from cold-rolled

sheet steel in a range of thicknesses from 0.0946 in.

(2.4 mm) (formerly 12-gauge) to 0.0115 in. (0.292 mm)

(formerly 29-gauge). They consist of a cylindrical body

with a welded side seam and top and bottom heads. The

thickness of steel used in pails and small drums usually

range from 0.0115 in. (0.3 mm) to 0.0269 in. (0.7 mm),

while thicker steel [i.e., from 0.030 in. (0.8 mm) to 0.0533

in. (1.4 mm)] are used for larger, reconditionable drums

(see Table 1).

Most drums are made of commercial-grade cold-rolled

sheet steel, but stainless steel, nickel, and other alloys are

used for special applications. Only about 45% of all new

drums are lined with interior protective coatings, but the

percentage is much higher (i.e., 80%) for drums used for

chemicals. Over the years, the cost and weight of steel

drums have been reduced owing to technological ad-

vances, such as the introduction of the triple-seam chime

the early 1980s

. Improvements in cold-rolled steel

chemistry, surface quality, and gauge control have also

contributed to a reduction in cost and weight. Until the

early 1960s, most tight-head drums were made of steel

0.0428 in. (1.1 mm) thick (formerly 18-gauge). There has

since been a shift to a lighter-gauge drum with a steel

thickness of 0.043 in. (1.1 mm) in the top and bottom heads

and 0.030 in. (0.8 mm) in the body (formerly known as the

20/18 drum, now marked as 1.1/.8/1.1). Currently, 55-gal

(208-L) drums of 0.0378-in. (1.0-mm) steel thickness are

being manufactured to transport hazardous materials,

376 DRUMS/PAILS, STEEL

and 55-gal drums of 0.030-in. (0.8-mm) thickness or

thinner are used for nonhazardous materials. Other pop-

ular sizes are 30 and 16 gal. In addition, the 85-gal drum,

known as the ‘‘salvage drum,’’ is used to transport leaking

or damaged packagings and debris from hazardous

materials accidents. Each size can ﬁt the non-bulk packag-

ing needs of the drum user. [For a complete list of

standard drum sizes and dimensions, consult ANSI MH2-

1991 (2).]

STYLES

Two basic styles of drums exist: the tighthead (or non-

removable head), with permanently attached top and

bottom heads, and the open head (or removable head), in

which the removable top head or cover is secured by using

a separate closing ring with either a bolted or lever-

locking closure (see Figure 1).

Expanded rolling hoops, ie, swedges, in the drum body

stiffen the cylinder and provide a low friction surface for

rolling ﬁlled containers.

Tight-head drums (and pails) have their top and bottom

heads mechanically rolled (seamed) in multiple layers to

the body using a nonhardening seaming compound to form

a joint (chime). Two openings, one 2 in. (51 mm) and the

other 3/4 in. (19 mm), for ﬁlling and venting are usually

provided in the top head, although side openings and

other opening combinations and sizes are sometimes

used. The openings are ﬁtted with mechanically inserted

threaded ﬂanges conforming with American National Pipe

thread standards. Threaded plugs for insertion in the

ﬂanges are made of steel or plastic and have resilient

gaskets where appropriate. On full-removable-head

drums, the top of the body sidewall is rolled outward to

form a follow curl (false wire) to which the top head or

cover is attached using a gasket of resilient material and a

separate closing ring.

Steel pails are generally of the same conﬁguration and

style as the large-capacity steel drums, but are usually of

thinner metal and may have only one expanded body hoop.

A bail handle or carrying grip is often provided for

handling purposes. A common closure for open-head pails

is a lug cover that is crimped in place around the top curl

and is removed by lifting the lugs (see Figure 1).

PROTECTION AND LININGS

Most steel pails and drums are fabricated from steel

treated to resist rusting owing to moisture in the air.

Steel is a nonpermeable, biodegradable material that is

compatible with most chemicals and petroleum-based

products.

Coatings are applied to the inside of drums (linings)

and the outside (paint) to provide additional protection

and decoration. State and federal environmental regula-

tions control the amount of volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) emitted during the application of the linings and

the paint. Because conventional linings and paint contain

some degree of organic solvent or heavy-metal pigments,

these are being replaced by water-based or high-solids

linings and nontoxic paint. In many instances, steel drum

and pail manufacturers use after-burners to incinerate all

vapors emitted in the paint booths, thereby reducing

VOCs. Companies also recapture spray paint for remixing

and reapplication on containers to conserve paint and

protect the environment.

Interior

Linings are used for protection against acids, alkalies, and

some organic chemicals. Phenolics provide protection

against certain acids, and epoxies offer protection against

alkalies. Linings consisting of varying percentages of

epoxy and phenolic materials are most commonly used

today. In some instances, the needed protection is supplied

by a ﬂexible or semirigid polyethylene liner insert.

Exterior

New steel containers can be painted, lithographed, or silk-

screened to provide an attractively decorated and durable

ﬁnish. Enamels are sprayed or roller-coated, baked, and

oven-cured to give a scuff-resistant exterior coating. Black

is generally the standard color, but other colors are

available as well. Product and manufacturer information

for merchandising or to satisfy transportation needs is

applied by lithography, silk-screening, or stenciling.

STANDARDIZATION

National standards for steel pails and drums have been

developed in the United States within the American

National Standards Institute (ANSI) by a Committee on

Steel Pails and Drums sponsored by the Steel Shipping

Container Institute.

These dimensional standards have received interna-

tional acceptance and have provided many advantages in

Table 1. Sheet Steel Thicknesses Versus Gauge No

Minimum Thickness Nominal Thickness Marking

Gauge No. in. mm mm

12 0.0946 2.40 2.4

16 0.0533 1.35 1.4

18 0.0428 1.09 1.1

19 0.0378 0.960 1.0

20 0.0324 0.823 0.8

22 0.0269 0.683 0.7

24 0.0209 0.531 0.5

26 0.0159 0.404 0.4

28 0.0129 0.328 0.3

29 0.0115 0.292 0.3

Sheet steel thickness is measured at any point no less than 3/8 in.

(9.53 mm) from the edge. New DOT regulations that went into effect for

new packaging manufacturers on October 1, 1994 no longer refer to steel

thicknesses in gauges but rather in millimeters.

Nominal thickness markings are those applied as part of the durable and

permanent UN marks on the drum and pail (4). Consult ISO Standard

3574 for nominal thickness tolerances.

DRUMS/PAILS, STEEL 377