Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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wereseekingtopersuadethemostdoctrinaireofLeninistregimestorestthe

outcomeofalifetime’sstruggleonfreeelectionssuchastheyhadneverriskedin

theirowncountry.



XuanThuy,inanyevent,hadnoauthoritytomodifyevenslightlythe

standingHanoiposition.Norwasheimpressedbymyrhetoric.Hewasalittle

opaqueabouttheirsixmonths’deadlineforunconditionalAmericanwithdrawal

butonlybecause,aswefoundoutwithintendays,Hanoiwasabouttounveila

newproposal;thisnewformula,however,wasnodifferentinessence.XuanThuy

didnotspendmuchtimeonthewithdrawalquestion;noonewhofollowedour

Congressionaldebatesorourmediacoulddoubtthatthepressuresforunilateral

withdrawalhadtheirownmomentum.HedismissedourappointmentofDavid

Bruceasseniornegotiator,despitethefactthatateverymeetinginFebruaryand

MarchLeDucThohadcastigatedusforfailingtoreplaceHenryCabotLodgewith

amanofcomparabledistinction.NowXuanThuyclaimedthatBruce’s

appointmentsimplyputanendtowhatweshouldneverhavedoneinthefirst

place;itimpliednoreciprocity.



WhatinterestedXuanThuyaboveallelsewasthepoliticalstructurethat

HanoiwantedtoseeinSouthVietnam.MuchasHanoiwantedusoutofVietnam,

ithadassignedusafinalroleofhonor:wewerenottoleaveuntilwehad

overthrownalltheleaderswhohadbeenourallies—PresidentThieu,Vice

PresidentKy,andPremierKhiem,and,itsoonappeared,almostanyotherSouth

Vietnameseleaderofprominence.Ifwedidnotoverthrowthisgovernment,Xuan

Thuysaid,“Nosettlementcanbereached.”Indefianceofpastandcurrent

experienceXuanThuyinformedmethat“theVietnameseloveoneanother. Itis

alwayseasytofindsolutionsamongtheVietnamesethemselves.”XuanThuy

strenuouslydeniedthatthepresenceofnearly200,000NorthVietname se troops

intheSouth(andsubstantialadditionalforcesinLaosandCambodia)was

designedtoexercisepressure;theyweretherethroughthefreechoiceofthe

localpopulation.WhenIjokinglyinvitedhimtoHarvardtoteachaseminaron

MarxismandLeninismafterthewar,hedeclined,sayingthatMarxism‐Leninism

wasnotforexport—whichwillcomeasremarkablenewstoalltheinhabitantsof

Indochinatoday.Allofthiswashighlightedbytheperennialclaimto epicstature:

“weareafraidofnothing.Wearenotafraidofthreats.Prolongationoffighting

doesn’tfrightenus.Prolongationofnegotiationsdoesn’tfrightenus.Weare

afraidofnothing.”Attheendofthemeetingweagreedtostudyeachother’s

presentationsandto meetagainonSeptember27.



Beforethenextmeetingcouldtakeplace,however ,theCommunists

publishedanewpeaceprogram.Tendaysafterthesecretmeeting,onSeptember

17MadameNguyenThiBinhunveiledaneweight‐point“peaceprogram”in

Paris.Itwashardlyasignofthe“seriousintent”alwaysprofessedbyHanoi’s

negotiatorsthatXuanThuyhadgivenmenoadvancewordofthis;clearly,Hanoi

wasmoreinterestedinpropagandathaninnegotiation.(Formally,allproposals

wereputforwardbyMadameBinh,theso‐calledForeignMinisterofthe

ProvisionalRevolutionaryGovernment.Heractualstatureisshownbythefact

thatafterHanoioverrantheSouthshewasrelegatedtotheMinistryofEducation

andneverheardofagain.)HereightpointsaskedfortotalandunconditionalUS

withdrawalinninemonths,specificallybyJune30,1971.Thislookedlikea

generousextensionofHanoi’spreviousdemandforwithdrawalinsixmonths.In

fact,itwasaretrogression.Theprevious proposalwasforsixmonthsafteran

agreementhadbeenconcluded.MadameBinh’snewschemehadthenine

monthsstartingimmediately,andtheAmericanwithdrawalwouldhavetobe

completedwhateverhappenedintherestofthenegotiations.Oncewehad

agreedtoit,wewouldhavetogothroughwithitevenifHanoistalematedall

otherissues.Andthatunconditionalwithdrawalwasonlythefirstinstallment;it

hadtobecoupledwithourinstallationofaprovisionalcoalition governmentin

Saigon.Thisgovernmentwouldbecomposedofthreesegments:theCommunist

PRG;neutralists“standingforpeace,independence,neutralityanddemocracy”;

andmembersoftheSaigongovernmentotherthanThieu,Ky,andKhiemwho

also“reallystandforpeace,independence,neutralityanddemocracy.”Hanoi,of

course,woulddecidewho“really”incarnatedtheseworthygoals.Inotherwords,

Hanoi’scoalitiongovernmentwouldconsist ofitsownpeople,handpicked

neutralists,plushandpickedremnantsofthenon‐Communistelement

decapitatedofitsleaders hipandcutofffromAmericanmilitarysupport.Butthe

professionalrevolutionariesinHanoiwerenotpreparedtotakeanychances.This

totallystackedcoalition,accordingtoMadameBinh,wastobeconsideredonly

“provisional”;itsjobwasthentonegotiateafinalsettlementwiththeCommunist

PRCAfterwehadoverthrownourownallies,aCommunist ‐dominated

governmentwastonegotiatewiththeCommuniststodecideSouthVietnam’s

future.



ThiswasHanoi’sversionofafairnegotiatedoutcome.Ourunwillingnessto

acceptitwasdecriedbycritics inAmericaaspigheadedintransigence,explicable

onlybythebloodthirstypursuitofmilitaryvictory.InreturnHanoiwasprepared

nottoreleaseourprisonersbut onlyto“engageatonceindiscussionson”that

subject,duringwhichtheywouldnodoubtthinkupadditionaldemands.Acease‐

firewouldtakeeffectonlyafterwehadagreedtoalltheotherconditions,

includingthebetrayalofourfriends.



InthisatmosphereImetwithXuanThuyonSeptember27,1970.Sinc ethe

PresidentwasleavingforRomethatday,IhadcometoParisopenlytheday

beforetoconsultwithDavidBruceandtohaveatalkwithSouthVietnameseVice

PresidentNguyenCaoKy,whohappene dtobeinthecity.Kyhadthrown

WashingtonintoaditherbyindicatingthathemightvisitusinOctober.Itwas

symptomaticofthemoodofthetimesthatthevisitoftheVicePresidentofa

countrywhereover40,000Americanshadalreadydiedshouldbeconsidered

disastrousbymanyRepublicanCongressionalcandidates,includingthosewho

hadgenerallyvotedwiththeAdministration.Ittooksomedelicatefootworkto

dissuadeKy;ourmeetinginPariswasofferedasasubstitute.Rogersevenargued

againstthisasriskingthewrathoftheprotesters. 



GoingtoParisopenlypresentedanovellogisticsproblem,asIhadnowto

findawayofdisappearingtemporarilyalthoughmypresencewasalreadyknown.

OurgenialAmbassador,DickWatson,steppedintothebreachbyostensibly

takingmeforadriveintothecountry;attheedgeoftownweswitchedcarsand

GeneralWalterstookme,lord,andSmysertoourmeetingplace.



SinceIhadmadetheopeningpresentationpreviously,itwasXuanThuy’s

turnthistime.Heprovedthathehadindeedstudiedourtwelvemonth

withdrawalschedule,andnowputforwardhisown—itwasMadameBinh’snine‐

monthdeadline,withwithdrawalssoarrangedthatallbutabout20,000

Americansofthesome350,000remainingwoulddepartwithinthefirstsix

months.HisterminaldateremainedinflexiblyJune30,1971,evenifthe

negotiationsontheremainingissuesreachedacompletedeadlock. Heelaborated

slightlyontheeightpoints.Therewouldbea“cease‐fire”betweenUnitedStates

andCommunistforceswhilewewithdrew;XuanThuywasnegativeabout

whetherfightingwiththeSouthVietnameseforceswouldstop.Wewerebeing

askedtowithdrawevenwhileourallieswerebeingattacked.Thegovernment

wouldnotapplytoLaosorCambo dia.Asforthepoliticalside,XuanThuyrejected

anydiscussionofthemixedelectoralcommission.Heinsistedontheremovalof

Thieu,Ky,andKhiem.HethrewinHuong,whohadpreviouslyservedasPrime

Minister,forgoodmeasure.ThenextyearIwastofindthatnopoliticalfigure

knowntomewouldproveacceptabletoourimplacableadversaries.



TheonlynoveltyintroducedbyXuanThuywastheratherominous

assertionthatpeace,tobeeffective,requiredawiderframeworkthanSouth

Vietnam;allneighboring stateshadtobecome“independentandneutral”aswell.

Undermyquestioning,helistedLaos,Cambodia,Burma,Indonesia,Australia,and

Thailand:“Inourviewsuchcountriesshouldfollowthepathofpeaceand

neutrality,sothatthisareawillbepeaceful.”(NewZealandwasforsomereason

excluded.)Incredulous,IaskedhimwhethertheVietnamWarhadtocontinue

untilallthesecountriesbecameneutral.Hebackedoff.ItwasjustHanoi’s

“desire,”hesaid.(Thefactisthatasofthiswritingithasrealizedits“desire”with

respecttoLaosandCambodiaandisthreateningThailand.XuanThuymightyet

turnouttobeprophetic.)



WhateverHanoi’sgrandioseambitionsoutsideIndochina,withinIndochina

itdemandedunconditional surrenderandpoliticaldesertion.Withanimmutable

deadlinesetforourwithdrawal,withallknownnon‐Communistleadersexcluded

frompoliticalparticipation,andwiththeexistinggovernmentoverthrown,there

wasnopossibleoutcomeexceptaCommunisttakeoverinwhichwewereasked

tocollude.Itwasnotjustamatterofourpullingoutandletting thechipsfall

wheretheymay,norofpullingoutabruptlywithoutanyquidproquowhatever.

Ourunilateralexitwasnotenough;wehadtoengineerapoliticalturnoverbefore

weleft,orelsethewarcouldnotend,wewouldhavenoassuranceofasafe

withdrawalofourremainingfo rces,andwewouldnotregainourprisoners.Our

dilemmawasthatHanoimaintainedthispositionuntilOctober1972. Aslongasit

didso,nonegotiatedsettlementwasavailable.Wewerecaught betweenan

enemyunwillingtocompromiseandanantiwarmovementintheCongress

refusingeithertoadmitthatHanoimightbeimplacableortocountenance

militaryactionthatmighthaveinducedHanoitoalteritsterms.MadameBinh’s

publicproposalsummarizedwhatwewerealsobeingtoldinsecret.Hanoi’s

“private”viewwasidenticalwithitspublicone.



AftertheSeptember27meetingwithXuanThuyIwasconvincedthatour

embryonicideaofastandstillcease‐firewouldberejectedoutofhand.Butso

manyinourgovernmenthadinvestedsomanyhopesinit(andsofew knewof

thesecrettalks)thattheAdministrationwasgovernedbyarareunanimityas

planningproceeded.Allseniorofficialscametofavoranythingthatmightgetthe

negotiationsoffdeadcenterandourcriticsoffthefrontpages,ifonlyforafew

days.Nixonmettoconsiderhiscease‐firespeechwithRogers,Bruce,Habib,and

meonSunday,October4,atDromolandCastle,CountyClare,Ireland,ontheway

homefromhisEuropeantrip.Themeetingcouldnothavebeenmoreoptimistic.

HabibwascertainthattheNorthVietnamesewouldtakethebait.Frommy

conversationswithXuanThuy(ofwhichBrucewasfullyinformed)Ihadmy

doubtsbutdidnotexpressthem.Ataminimum,Ithought,thePresident’s

proposalwouldgiveussometemporary relieffrompublicpressures.



AttheendofthemeetingDavidBrucemadeastatementuniqueinmy

experiencewithAmericannegotiators.Hesaidthathewasawareofthemany

pressuresonthePresidenttomakeconcessions;hewouldnotaddtothese,since

hethoughttheproposedspeechbythePresidentwenttothelimitofwhatwe

couldoffer.Hehadseentoomuchlostthroughtheimpatienceofnegotiators,

evenmorethroughtheirvanity.Hewasbynaturenotimpatient,andnowtooold

forvanity.Hewascontenttostandontheproposal.



Wewentimmediatelyintothepreparationofthespeechfordelivery

October7.ThedaybeforehewasduetogiveitNixonputononeofhisclassic

performances.HesteppedunexpectedlyintotheWhiteHousepressbriefing

roomtotellthestartledjournaliststhathewoulddeliverthenextevening“the

mostcomprehensivestatementevermadeonthissubjectsincethebeginningof

thisverydifficultwar.”Hispenchantforhyperboleensuredthatalmostnothing

hecouldsaywouldliveuptotheadvancebilling.Nixoncautionedtheassembled

pressagainstspeculation.Speculationnowbeingguaranteed,hereturnedtothe

OvalOfficesimultaneouslytoenjoythediscomfitureandconfusionofhisenemies 

inthemediaandtoworryabouttheleakshisenthusiasmhadencouraged.



Nixon’sspeechonOctober7,1970,infactpresentedacomprehensive

programthatcouldwellhaveservedasabasisfornegotiationexceptwithan

opponentbentontotalvictory.Nixonofferedastandstillcease‐fire,includinga

halttoourbombingthroughoutIndochina.Heproposedapeaceconferenceto

bringanendtothewarsinallthecountriesofIndochina.Heexpresseda

readinesstonegotiateanagreedtimetableforthetotalwithdrawalofAmerican

forces.Heputitinthecontextofmutualwithdrawal,butinalanguageso

deliberatelyfuzzyastoinviteexploration.HeinvitedHanoitojoinusinapolitical

settlementbasedonthewilloftheSouthVietnamesepeople.Heofferedtoabide

bytheoutcomeoftheagreedpoliticalprocessbutrejectedthe“patently

unreasonable”demandthatwedismantletheorganizednon‐Communistforces

andguaranteeinadvancethevictoryoftheCommunists.F inally,hecalledforthe

releasebybothsidesofallprisonersofwar.



ForonceaspeechonVietnamreceivedalmostunanimouspraise.The

Senateadoptedaresolution,sponsoredbySenatorCharlesPercyandanumber

ofotherSenators,callingthePresident’snewpeaceinitiative“fairandequitable.”

SenatorFulbrightexpressedhishopethatthePresident’sinitiativemightleadtoa

breakthrough.SenatorMikeMansfieldsaidthespeechwasexcellent;hewould

dohis“verybesttosupportit.”FormerVicePresidentHubertHumphre y ,running

fortheSenateinMinnesota,describedtheofferas“sound,welcomeand

heartening.”AverellHarrimancoupledoneofhisfewfavorablecommentsabout

aNixoninitiativewithoneofhisobsessivewarningsthattheThieugovernment

waslargelyresponsibleforthenegotiatingimpasseandshouldbepreventedfrom

blockingthecease‐fire.HousespeakerJohnMcCormackdescribedtheinitiative

as“timelyandstrategicallyandpsychologicallysound.”



Thenewspapersjoinedthechorusofpraise.TheNewYorkTimesof

October9calledNixon’sapproacha“majornewpeaceinit iative.”TheWallStreet

Journalsaid:“HoweverHanoifinallyresponds,infact,thePresidenthasputforth

anAmericanpositionsoappealingandsosanethatonlythemostunreasonable

criticscouldobjecttoit.”TheChicagoDailynews,usuallyopposedtothe

President’sVietnampolicies,saidthat“Americansofalmosteverypolitical

persuasionmustsurelybackthePresidenttotheutmostinhisurgentattemptto

writeanendtothelongest,mostdismalwarthisnationhaseverknown.”

The

usuallyantiwarSt.LouisPost‐DispatchonOctober8hailedthe“significantand

welcomechanges”inNixon’sspeech, his“statesmanlikeproposals,”his

“constructive”and“responsible”statement;“wecommendhimonit.”



Butitwasashort‐livedhoneymoon.XuanThuymadeastatementinParis

thenextdayrejectingNixon’sproposaloutofhand;herefusedeventotalkabout

itatplenarysessions.TheclassicpatternoftheVietnamdebatereappeared.

Someproposalwouldemergeandbecomethesubjectofpassionateadvocacy;it

wouldbeurgedasthekeytoabreakthrough.AtlasttheAdministrationwould

acceptit,sometimesagainstitsbetterjudgment.Hanoiwouldrefuse.The

proposalwouldthenimmediatelydisappearfromthepublicdebateandsome

otherpetschemewouldbecomethenationalobsession.Withinweeksourcritics

werebackwithdemandsforadditionalconcessions.Thenewgimmickwasto

urgesettingawithdrawaldeadlineunilaterally,inthebelief—againstall

evidence—thatthiswasacceptabletoHanoi.

Anotherwascoalitiongovernment.

TheSt.LouisPost‐DispatchonNovember5—lessthanamonthafterithadhailed

thePresident’scease‐fireoffer—argued:



TheCommunistsdemandsomesortofcoalitiongovernment,andsincetheyhave

foughtforsomanyyearsthereisnoreasontothinktheywillsettleforanythingless.Why

shouldthey?Itseemstousacoalition,whichwouldgiveeachsideacertainresponsibilityand

authority,isthelogicalwaytoavertthebloodypost‐hostilitiesrevengeMr.Nixonsooften

envisions.



Unhappily,Hanoihadnoconceptofsharingpolit icalpower ;thecoalitionit

demandedincludednoneofourfriends.AlsoonNovember5,AverellHarriman

nowasserted,ontheNBCtelevisionshow“Today,”thattheNixonAdministration

had“madenoattempttocometoanagreement.”



Ourcriticswerestirredupevenmorewhen,withsimultaneousairstrikes,a

bravebandofAmericancommandosconductedaraidonaninstallationtwenty

milesfromHanoi—theSonTayprison—thoughttohousesixtyAmerican

prisonersofwar.Theincidentillustratedabasicaxiomofpolicymaking:A

President,andevenmorehissecurityadviser,musttakenothingonfaith;they

mustquestioneveryassumptionandprobeeveryallegedfact.Noteverything

thatisplausibleistrue,forthosewhoputforwardplansforactionhavea

psychologicaldispositiontomarshalthefactsthatsupporttheirposition.TheSon

Tayraid,carriedout onNovember20,wasmeticulouslyplannedandheroically

executedbutwasbasedonanegregiousfailureofintelligence:Theprisonhad

beenclosedatleastthreemonthsearlier.Weknewtheriskofcasualties,but

noneofthebriefings thatledtothedecisiontoproceedhadevermentionedthe

possibilitythatthecampmightbeempty.AfterthefailureoftheraidIwas

informedofamessagesentincodebyaprisonerofwarthatthecampwas

“closed”onJuly14.Thiswasinterpretedbymilitaryanalyststomeanthatthe

gateswerelocked;ithadnotbeenconsideredofsufficientimportancetobringto

theattentionoftheWhiteHo use.



Theraidproducedaratherbizarrefootnotegeneratedbymywarpedsense

ofhumor.Anofficerbriefingmeontheraidapologizedforitsfailure.Itoldhim

nottoapologize,jokingthatnodoubttheyhadbroughtbackababywater

buffalo,andtheNorthVietnameseweregoingcrazytryingtofigureoutwhywe

hadmountedabigoperationforthatpurpose.Theofficer,patriotically

presumingthatthePresident’ssecurityadvisercouldnotbetotallymad,reported

thistohissuperiors.Hissuperiorsstarte da huntfortheanimal.Thetroopsinthe

field,convincedbynowthatWashingtonhadlostitsmind,reportedtheyknew

nothingaboutanykidnappedbabywaterbuffalo.ThePentagonrefusedto

believeIhadmademycommentlightly.Backwentacableaskingtomakesureby

checkingthehelicopterforbuffalodung.Thewholeincidenthasbeen

memorializedinabook.



TheSonTayraidwasaccompaniedbyatwo‐daystrikeby200airplanes

againstNorthVietnamesesupplyinstallations.Therewerethreereasonsforthese

attacks:todivertHanoi’s defensesfromSonTay;toretaliatefortheabrupt

rejectionofourpeaceproposal;andtoslowdowntheNorthVietnamesedry‐

seasonsupplyeffortintotheSouth,nowrunningattwicetherateoftheprevious

year.OutrageintheCongressandthemedia,asusual,focusedonAmerican

actionsandnotHanoi’sprovocations.Twothemespredominated:thatbombing

“demonstrably”neverworked,andthattheAdministrationonceagainwas

misleadingthepublic.Theself‐evidenceoftheineffectivenessofairinterdictionis

muchlesscleartodaythanitseemedtomanyinthepassionoftheVietnam

debate.Thereismuchevidencethatatthetimeofthe1968TetoffensiveHanoi

wasonthepointofexhaustionwhensavedbyourunilateralbombinghalt.There

isnodoubtinmymindthattheresumptionofbombinginMay1972hastened

theendofthewar.Whetheratwo‐daybombingeffortin1970boughtusmore

timeinthedestructionofsuppliesthanitlostinstirring upoppositionisaclose

question,butnotatrivialone.Themilitarystepsthatweremakingitpossible for

ustowithdrawfromVietnamweredenouncedasiftheywereescalatingour

involvement.



Neithergovernmentnoroppositiondealtwellwiththeraids.Officials

desperatelyeagertoavoidCongressionalandmediawrathbelittledouroffensive

effortsorexplainedthembywhatwasapatentsubterfuge(“protective

reaction”).Mediaandlegislatorssmellingbloodusedeverysignofpanicand

insecuritytobuildtheircaseagainstagovernmenttheydemagogicallydescribed

aseagerforwar.Thoughmuchofthecredibilitygapwascausedbythe

Administration,anotinconsiderablepartwasbroughtaboutbythoserelentless

opponentswhostartedfromthepresumptionthatnothingtheirgovernmentdid

inthewarcouldhaveanymoralfoundationorserveanynati onalpurposeand

whowerecommittedtodiscreditinganAdministrationdesperatelytryingto

extricateourcountryfromawarithadinherited.Suchwastheparanoiaofthe

periodthatadistinguishedseniorprofessortoldmeinallseriousnessthattheson

TayraidhadbeenengineeredsothatsomePOWSwouldbekilledinorderto

haveapretextforescalationof thewar.



ByJanuary19,1971,ClarkKerr’sNationalCommitteeforaPolitical

SettlementinVietnamwasrightbacktowhereithadbeenbeforeNixon’s

October7speech.ThegroupthathadpressedsopassionatelyforaUScease‐fire

proposalasthekeytopeace,now,afterwehadmadeoneandbeenflatlyturned

down,didnotdrawtheconclusionthatweshouldmaintainourpositionbecause

theothersidewasunreasonable.Instead,itnowurgedaunilateralAmerican

cease‐fireinVietnam.Hanoi’srejectionwasattributednottointransigencebutto

ourownactionsintheSonTayraid,protectivereactionstrikes,andfailureto

extendtheChristmascease‐fire.AllthisdespitethefactthatXuanThuyhad

alreadyrejectedourofferbeforetheseevents.Hanoi’srigiditywastobe

overcomebyfurtherAmericanconcessions.“Adiplomaticeffortisessentialinthe

comingmonths,”Kerr’sCommitteewrotethePresident,“ifwearetobreakdown

theresistanceoftheothersidetoacease‐fire,andbuildpressuresonthem

eventuallytonegotiateanagreement…weremainconvincedthatsuchan

agreementcanbeachievedeventuallythroughvigorousdiplomaticandpolitical

effortsandinitiatives.”TheCommitteegavenoevidenceonwhichtobase sucha

conviction;wehadconsiderableproofofthecontrary.



<<Contents>>



****



TheSettingofaStrategy



ytheendof1970werantheriskthatourVietnamstrategywouldturnintoa

debateabouttherateofourunilateralwithdrawal.Evenwithinthe

Administrationtherewastremendousweariness.Theconstantpressuresthat

transformedeventhemostminormilitaryactionintoatestofcredibility,the

endlesstestimonybeforeCongressionalcommittees,theincessantprobingby

themedia—whichrangedfromskepticaltohostile—alltendedtoworkagainsta

coherentstrategy.Therewassimplynonegotiatingschemethatcouldpossibly

workwiththecold‐eyedplannersinHanoiunlessitwasrelatedtosomecalculus

ofthebalanceofforces.Criticstookitforgrantedthatitwasuptoustosupplyall

theconcessionsanddemonstrationsofgoodwillandflexibility;demandsfor

ingenuitywererarelyaddressedtotheotherside,andneverpersistently.Butthe

morethenegotiatingprocessdegeneratedintoanaccumulationof

unreciprocatedconcessions,thegreaterwasHanoi’sincentivetoholdoninorder

toseewhatfurthermovementtowarditspositionourgrowingpsychological

exhaustionwouldproduce.

B



Oneunilateralconcessionoccasionedbydomesticpressurewasan

accelerationofourwithdrawalscheduleinthefallof1970.WhenonApril20,

1970,Nixonhadannouncedawithdrawalof150,000menovertwelvemonths,

oneofhisreasonswastoretainmaximumflexibilityinthetimingofactual

pullouts.Theintention,confirmedinawrittenPresidentialdirectiveofApril22,

wastowithdrawnomorethan60,000duringtheremainderof1970;thiswasto

giveusacushionduringthedryseason,whichranfromOctobertoMay

(dependingonthepartofthecountry).ItwasduringthedryseasonthatHanoi

pusheditssuppliesdowntheHoChiMinhTrail;itwasfromFebruaryonwardthat

Communistoffensivestookplace.ThePresident,ontheadviceofGeneral

Abrams,hadwantedtodeferthebulkofthere ductionuntil1971todeteranew

Tetoffensiveandtohusbandthelastsubstantialcombatforcesforany

emergency.ButCo ngressionalpressuresonthePentagonbudgetandthepolitical

needtoreducedraftcallshadmadeitimpossibletofulfillNixon’sdirective.On

August20Lairdwroteme,pointingoutthat“wecontinuetobetightly

constrained”bythebudget.Therefore,hesaid,GeneralAbrams,ourPacific

Command,andtheJoint Chiefsofstaff“haverecommendedtome”awithdrawal

schedulecallingforwithdrawalof90,000incalendaryear1970andtheremaining

60,000byMay1,1971.

