Masters G.M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems

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638 SOLAR INSOLATION TABLES BY CITY

San Juan, PR Latitude 18.43

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.1 5.7 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.6 5.0 4.5 4.1 5.4

Lat 5.1 5.6 6.1 6.1 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.7 5.4 5.1 4.8 5.5

Lat + 15 5.5 5.8 6.0 5.7 4.9 4.8 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.4 5.2 5.4

90 4.2 3.9 3.1 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.5 3.3 3.9 4.1 2.8

1-Axis (Lat) 6.3 6.9 7.7 7.8 6.9 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.1 6.7 6.1 5.7 6.9

Temp. (

◦

C) 28.4 28.7 29.1 29.9 30.7 31.4 31.4 31.5 31.6 31.3 29.9 28.8 30.2

Charleston, SC Latitude 32.90

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.5 4.3 5.3 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.0 5.6 5.1 4.8 3.9 3.4 5.0

Lat 4.0 4.7 5.5 6.1 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.4 5.2 5.2 4.5 3.9 5.1

Lat + 15 4.3 4.9 5.4 5.7 5.2 4.9 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.2 4.7 4.2 4.9

90 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.1 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.5 3.1 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.2

1-Axis (Lat) 4.8 5.8 6.9 8.0 7.7 7.3 7.2 6.8 6.4 6.3 5.3 4.6 6.4

Temp. (

◦

C) 14.3 16.1 20.3 24.3 28.2 30.9 32.3 31.7 29.4 25.1 20.8 16.4 24.2

Nashville, TN Latitude 36.12

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.1 3.9 4.7 5.7 6.0 6.4 6.2 5.9 5.2 4.6 3.3 2.8 4.8

Lat 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.6 5.7 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.3 4.9 3.6 3.1 4.9

Lat + 15 3.7 4.3 4.7 5.2 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.0 5.0 3.8 3.4 4.6

90 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.9 3.3 3.0 3.1

1-Axis (Lat) 4.1 5.0 6.0 7.2 7.5 7.8 7.5 7.3 6.5 6.0 4.2 3.6 6.1

Temp. (

◦

C) 7.7 10.4 16.2 21.6 26.0 30.3 31.9 31.3 28.1 22.5 15.8 10.1 21.0

Brownsville, TX Latitude 25.90

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.4 5.7 6.2 6.4 6.0 5.4 4.9 3.9 3.1 4.9

Lat 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.7 5.9 5.8 5.5 5.3 4.4 3.6 5.0

Lat + 15 3.8 4.4 4.9 5.0 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.4 4.6 3.8 4.8

90 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.9 3.7 3.6 3.1 2.7

1-Axis (Lat) 4.2 5.2 6.1 6.6 6.8 7.6 7.9 7.7 7.0 6.6 5.3 4.1 6.3

Temp. (

◦

C) 20.5 22.3 25.8 28.9 31.0 32.8 34.1 34.2 32.4 29.6 25.7 22.1 28.3

El Paso, TX Latitude 31.80

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 4.6 5.6 6.6 7.4 7.8 7.7 7.2 6.9 6.4 5.9 4.9 4.4 6.3

Lat 5.3 6.2 7.0 7.3 7.3 7.1 6.7 6.7 6.6 6.4 5.7 5.1 6.5

Lat + 15 5.8 6.5 6.9 6.8 6.4 6.0 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.6 6.1 5.6 6.2

90 5.1 5.2 4.6 3.5 2.5 2.1 2.2 2.8 3.8 4.9 5.2 5.1 3.9

1-Axis (Lat) 6.5 7.9 9.2 10.1 10.4 10.2 9.2 9.0 8.7 8.2 7.0 6.3 8.6

Temp. (

◦

C) 13.4 16.8 21.1 25.9 30.6 35.8 35.6 34.2 30.6 25.8 19.1 14.2 25.3

Radiation data measured in kWh/m

-day, average daily maximum temperature (

◦

C).

SOLAR INSOLATION TABLES BY CITY 639

Fort Worth, TX Latitude 32.83

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.8 4.5 5.3 5.9 6.2 6.7 6.9 6.5 5.7 5.0 4.0 3.5 5.3

Lat 4.3 4.9 5.5 5.7 5.8 6.2 6.4 6.3 5.8 5.4 4.5 4.1 5.4

Lat + 15 4.6 5.1 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.3 5.7 5.6 5.7 5.5 4.8 4.4 5.2

90 4.0 4.0 3.6 2.9 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.8 3.4 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.3

1-Axis (Lat) 5.1 6.0 6.9 7.4 7.7 8.4 8.8 8.5 7.4 6.7 5.5 4.9 6.9

Temp. (

◦

C) 12.3 14.9 19.9 24.6 28.3 33.3 35.8 35.7 31.0 25.8 19.3 14.2 24.6

Midland, TX Latitude 31.93

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 4.3 5.1 6.2 6.8 7.0 7.1 6.9 6.6 5.9 5.5 4.6 4.1 5.8

Lat 5.0 5.7 6.5 6.7 6.5 6.5 6.4 6.4 6.0 6.0 5.3 4.8 6.0

Lat + 15 5.4 5.9 6.4 6.2 5.8 5.6 5.5 5.8 5.8 6.1 5.6 5.2 5.8

90 4.7 4.7 4.2 3.2 2.4 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.5 4.5 4.8 4.7 3.6

1-Axis (Lat) 6.1 7.1 8.4 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.0 8.7 7.8 7.6 6.5 5.8 7.9

Temp. (

◦

C) 13.6 16.4 21.8 26.6 30.8 34.1 35.2 34.5 29.7 25.2 19.0 14.7 25.1

San Antonio, TX Latitude 29.53

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.7 4.5 5.2 5.7 5.9 6.5 6.7 6.6 5.8 5.1 4.1 3.5 5.3

Lat 4.3 4.9 5.4 5.6 5.6 6.0 6.3 6.3 5.9 5.5 4.6 4.1 5.4

Lat + 15 4.5 5.0 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.8 5.7 5.6 4.9 4.4 5.2

90 3.8 3.8 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.1

1-Axis (Lat) 5.1 6.0 6.8 7.0 7.1 7.9 8.4 8.3 7.5 6.9 5.6 4.8 6.8

Temp. (

◦

C) 16.0 18.7 23.1 26.8 29.6 33.2 35.0 35.2 31.8 27.6 22.2 17.5 26.4

Salt Lake City, UT Latitude 40.77

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 2.9 4.0 5.0 5.9 6.6 7.2 7.3 7.0 6.3 5.0 3.3 2.5 5.2

Lat 3.2 4.3 5.2 5.8 6.2 6.6 6.7 6.7 6.4 5.4 3.7 2.9 5.3

Lat + 15 3.4 4.4 5.1 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.1 5.5 3.9 3.1 5.0

90 3.2 3.9 3.9 3.5 3.0 2.8 2.9 3.6 4.3 4.5 3.5 2.9 3.5

1-Axis (Lat) 3.7 5.1 6.5 7.7 8.7 9.6 9.8 9.4 8.6 6.8 4.3 3.3 7.0

Temp. (

◦

C) 2.4 6.4 11.2 16.3 22.2 28.2 33.4 31.9 26.2 18.9 10.4 3.2 17.6

Sterling, VA Latitude 38.95

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.1 3.9 4.7 5.4 5.8 6.1 6.0 5.7 5.0 4.3 3.2 2.7 4.7

Lat 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.6 5.5 5.1 4.6 3.6 3.1 4.7

Lat + 15 3.7 4.3 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.6 3.7 3.3 4.5

90 3.4 3.7 3.5 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.7 3.3 3.0 3.1

1-Axis (Lat) 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.8 7.1 7.4 7.2 6.9 6.3 5.6 4.2 3.5 5.8

Temp. (

◦

C) 4.5 6.6 12.6 18.4 23.5 28.2 30.6 29.7 26.1 19.8 13.7 7.2 18.4

Radiation data measured in kWh/m

-day, average daily maximum temperature (

◦

C).

640 SOLAR INSOLATION TABLES BY CITY

Burlington, VT Latitude 44.47

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 2.6 3.6 4.5 5.0 5.6 5.9 6.1 5.6 4.7 3.5 2.2 1.9 4.3

Lat 2.9 3.9 4.7 4.9 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.3 4.8 3.7 2.4 2.1 4.3

Lat + 15 3.1 4.1 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.5 3.7 2.4 2.2 4.0

90 3.0 3.8 3.9 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.1 2.2 2.2 3.0

1-Axis (Lat) 3.3 4.6 5.8 6.3 7.0 7.4 7.7 7.1 6.0 4.4 2.6 2.4 5.4

Temp. (

◦

C) −3.8 −2.5 4.1 12.0 19.6 24.3 27.3 25.5 20.6 13.9 6.7 −0.9 12.2

Seattle, WA Latitude 47.45

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 1.5 2.3 3.5 4.6 5.4 5.7 6.1 5.6 4.7 3.0 1.7 1.3 3.8

Lat 1.6 2.5 3.6 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.7 5.4 4.7 3.2 1.8 1.4 3.7

Lat + 15 1.7 2.5 3.5 4.1 4.5 4.5 4.9 4.9 4.5 3.2 1.8 1.4 3.5

90 1.5 2.2 2.8 3.0 3.0 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.4 2.7 1.7 1.3 2.6

1-Axis (Lat) 1.8 2.8 4.3 5.5 6.7 7.0 7.9 7.2 5.9 3.7 2.0 1.5 4.7

Temp. (

◦

C) 7.2 9.7 11.5 14.0 17.7 21.1 24.0 24.0 20.7 15.4 10.3 7.3 15.2

Madison, WI Latitude 43.13

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.0 3.9 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.2 6.2 5.7 4.8 3.8 2.5 2.3 4.5

Lat 3.4 4.3 4.7 5.0 5.5 5.7 5.8 5.5 4.8 4.0 2.8 2.6 4.5

Lat + 15 3.6 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.0 4.6 4.0 2.9 2.8 4.3

90 3.5 4.0 3.7 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.3 2.6 2.7 3.2

1-Axis (Lat) 3.9 5.0 5.8 6.4 7.3 7.8 7.7 7.1 6.0 4.8 3.2 3.0 5.7

Temp. (

◦

C) −4.0 −1.1 5.3 13.7 20.5 25.7 28.0 26.4 21.9 15.5 6.7 −1.2 13.1

Lander, WY Latitude 42.82

◦

Tilt Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Year

Lat − 15 3.7 4.8 5.7 6.2 6.5 7.0 7.0 6.8 6.1 5.1 3.8 3.4 5.5

Lat 4.3 5.3 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.5 6.5 6.2 5.5 4.3 4.0 5.6

Lat + 15 4.6 5.6 5.9 5.7 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.9 6.0 5.6 4.6 4.3 5.4

90 4.5 5.1 4.8 4.0 3.2 2.9 3.1 3.6 4.3 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.1

1-Axis (Lat)

5.0 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.5 9.4 9.5 9.3 8.3 6.9 5.2 4.6 7.4

Temp. (

◦

C) −0.4 2.8 7.6 13.2 18.9 25.2 30.1 28.8 22.4 15.4 5.8 0.1 14.2

The 1-axis tracker is south-facing at a tilt angle equal to its latitude.

Source: NREL (1994). Solar Radiation Data Manual for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Collectors.

APPENDIX F

MAPS OF SOLAR INSOLATION

Renewable and Efﬁcient Electric Power Systems. By Gilbert M. Masters

ISBN 0-471-28060-7

 2004 John W iley & Sons, Inc.

641

20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 100 80 40 2060

AUTUMN - Tilt angle equals the latitude angle

Daily total solar radiation incident on a tilted surface in kWH/m

/day

1.0

2.0

2.5

3.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

6.5

5.5

6.5

5.5

4.5

3.5

2.5

4.5

6.0

5.0

4.0 3.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

7.5

6.5

5.5

6.0

5.0

4.5

5.0

6.0

5.0

3.0

2.0

4.0

5.5

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

6.5

5.5

6.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

5.0

6.0

7.0

7.5

6.0

7.0

7.5

6.5

4.5

6.5

4.5

5.5

4.5

5.5

5.0

7.0

2.0

1.0

1.5

Figure Source: Thomas, 1987

642

20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 100 80 40 2060

WINTER - Tilt angle equals the latitude angle

Daily total solar radiation incident on a tilted surface in kWH/m

/day

1.5

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

2.5

3.5

2.5

4.5

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

6.0

4.0

4.5

6.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

6.0

7.5

6.5

5.5

4.5

3.5

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

2.5

2.0

5.5

4.5

3.5

2.5

3.0

2.0

6.5

6.0

5.0

4.0

5.0

5.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

5.5

4.5

5.0

6.5

5.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

643

20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 100 80 40 2060

SPRING - Tilt angle equals the latitude angle

Daily total solar radiation incident on a tilted surface in kWH/m

/day

3.5

4.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

5.0

4.0

6.5

5.5

4.5

5.5

3.5

2.5

4.05.0

6.0

7.0

4.0

3.0

6.5

4.5

7.0

7.5

5.5

6.5

6.0

7.0

7.5 7.5

6.5

4.5

6.5

5.5

4.5

4.0

5.0

6.0

5.0

6.5

5.5

4.5

5.5

3.5

6.5

5.5

644

20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 100 80 40 2060

SUMMER - Tilt angle equals the latitude angle

Daily total solar radiation incident on a tilted surface in kWH/m

/day

5.0

4.0

3.5

5.0

6.0

5.0

6.0

6.5

7.5

7.0

4.5

5.5

4.5

4.5 4.5

3.5

2.5

4.5

3.5

4.5

3.5

4.0

3.0

2.0

5.0

7.0

5.0

4.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

6.0

5.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

5.0

5.5

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

4.5

7.5

4.0

4.5

7.0

7.5

5.5

6.5

5.5

6.0

5.0

5.5

645

INDEX

Absorption cooling, 115, 274, 277–278

ac photovoltaic modules, 522–523

Active stall control for turbines, 356

Aeroderivative gas turbines, 132

Air conditioning, 115–116

absorption systems, 277–278

compressive refrigeration, 271–274

desiccant dehumidiﬁcation, 278–280

heat pumps, 274–277

Air density, 312, 314–319

Air mass ratio, 388–389, 412, 452–453

Alkaline fuel cells, 222

Altamont Pass, 347

Altitude angle of the sun, 394–396

Amorphous silicon photovoltaics, 495–497

Ampere, Andre Marie, 3, 24, 108

Ampere’s circuital law, 32

Annualizing investments, 248–250

Apparent extraterrestrial solar ﬂux, 412

Apparent power 63

Appliance energy consumption, 115, 273,

551–553

Area-and-time costs of distribution, 287–288

ASHRAE clear sky solar ﬂux model, 412, 415

Atmosphere,

density, 312, 314–319

Automobile,

ignition systems, 36

SLI batteries, 558–559

Azimuth angle of the sun, 395–396

Band gap energy, 448–453

and maximum PV efﬁciency, 454–455

in tandem cells, 495–497

Base load power plants, 116, 135–137, 142

Ballasts, electronic, 87, 90–92

Batteries,

internal resistance, 512–513

I –V curves, 512–514

lead-acid, 557–568

nickel-cadmium 557–558

nickel-metal hydride, 557–558

Thevenin equivalent circuit, 567–568

Beam tilt factor, 433

Becquerel, Edmund, 445

Bernoulli’s principle, 354

Betz efﬁciency for turbine blades, 323–325

Bird kills by wind turbines, 377–378

Biomass,

for electricity 192–194

gasiﬁcation for hydrogen, 226

Blackbody radiation, 385–387

Blocking diodes for PVs, 485, 572–575

Brayton cycle, 127

Renewable and Efﬁcient Electric Power Systems. By Gilbert M. Masters

ISBN 0-471-28060-7

 2004 John W iley & Sons, Inc.

647