Masters G.M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems
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648 INDEX
Buck-boost converter, 515–518
Buck converter, 82–85, 515
Building integrated photovoltaics, 505
Bypass diodes for PVs, 481–484
Cadmium telluride photovoltaics, 448, 452,
499–500
California energy:
AB 1890, 158–159
conservation achievements, 298–299
deregulation, 157–161
independent system operator (ISO),
159–161
peak power demand, 115–116
power exchange, 159, 161
Capacitance, 21–24
Capacitors:
for power factor correction, 64–67
idealized 21–24
in ac circuits, 57–59
Capacity factor, 139–141
for photovoltaic systems, 533–534
for wind turbines, 367–371
Capital recovery factor, 249, 545
Capstone turbines, 173–174
Carbon emissions, 130–131, 289–291
Carnot efficiency 122–127
Cash flow analysis, 254–256
Central receiver solar systems, 189–191
Centrifugal pumps, 588–590
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 272
Circular mils, 17
CIS (copper indium diselinide) cells, 500–501
Clear sky insolation, 401, 410–428
diffuse radiation, 415–417
direct beam, 410–415
reflected, 417–419
Clearness index, 431
Coal-fired power plants, 113–114, 128–131
Coal-integrated gasifier/gas turbines, 193
Coefficient of performance (COP), 272,
275–276, 278
Cogeneration, 135, 153, 260–271
Combined heat and power (CHP), 171–183,
260–271
design strategies, 269–271
economics of, 263–269
efficiency measures, 261–264
fuel cells, 267–269
internal combustion engines, 177–180
microturbines, 175–177
Combustion gas turbines, 131–133, 172–177
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), 90–93,
294–296
Competitive transition charge, 159
Compressive refrigeration, 271–274
Concentrating solar power technologies,
183–191
central receiver systems, 189–191
parabolic trough systems, 185–188, 190
solar dish/Stirling 183–185
Condensers, 128, 135, 271–272
Conductance, 11
Conservation achievements,
20/20 program, 161–162
in California 298–299
Conversion factors, Appendix A
Cooling,
absorption systems, 277–278
compressive refrigeration, 271–274
desiccant dehumidification, 278–280
heat pumps, 274–277
of power plants, 127–128
of buildings, 115–116
Copper indium diselenide (CIS) cells, 500–501
Cost of conserved energy, 256–260, 298–299
Cost chargeable to power, 264
Coulomb efficiency, 565–566
Crystalline silicon PV technologies, 485–494
Cumulative distribution functions, 357–360
Curie temperature 41
Current,
definitions, 3
gulps and harmonics, 80, 87
idealized sources, 10
Kirchhoff’s current law, 3–5
Cut-in, cut-out windspeed, 355–356
Czochralski (CZ) process for silicon, 446,
486–489
Darrieus rotors, 310–311, 313
Day number, 390
DC motor I –V curves, 510–512
DC-to dc converters, 515–518
DC transmission lines, 146–147
Deep-cycle lead acid batteries, 558–559
Deferral value of distributed generation, 280,
286–287
Demand charges, 236–239
Demand side management (DSM), 291–299
cost-effectiveness measures, 295–298
decoupling sales and profits, 293
disincentives, 292–293
Depletion region, 458
De-rating PV arrays from dc to ac, 525–527
Deregulation (see Restructuring),
Desiccant dehumidification, 278–280
Diamagnetic materials, 27
INDEX 649
Diodes,
blocking diodes for PVs, 485
bypass diodes for shade mitigation, 481–484
in rectifiers, 78–82
p –n junction diodes, 455–460
Direct beam radiation, 410–415
Direct methanol fuel cells, 222
Discount rate, 242
Dish/Stirling solar power plants, 183–185
Dispatching, 144
Distributed generation, 169–228
biomass for electricity, 192–194
economic benefits, 280–289
fuel cells, 206–228
internal combustion engines 177–180
microcombustion turbines, 172–177
micro-hydropower systems, 194–206
parabolic troughs, 185–188
photovoltaics,
solar central receivers, 189–190
Stirling engines, 180–185
Distributed resources, 231–233
Distribution systems, 111, 145, 286–288
Duty cycle, 83–86, 516–518
Economics of energy,
annualizing investments, 248–250, 545–547
average utility rates by state, 115–117, 158
benefits of distributed generation, 280–291
cash flow analysis, 254–256, 548–549
coal plant economics, 138–139
combined heat and power, 263–269
cost of conserved energy, 256–260
cost parameters for power plants, 138
costs based on screening curves, 143–144
grid-connected PV systems, 542–549
initial rate of return, 241
internal rate of return (IRR), 244–248
levelized bus-bar costs, 251–254
life-cycle costs, 243
net present value, 242–244
simple payback period, 241
transmission and distribution, 145
utility rate structures, 233–240
wind turbines, 371–377
Eddy current losses, 42–44, 98
Edison, Thomas Alva, 36, 151
battle over dc vs. ac 108–109
electric light company, 108
Effective values of current and voltage, 51–55
Efficiency,
in California’s deregulation crisis, 161–162
Einstein, Albert, photovoltaic effect, 445
Electric chair, 109
Electric rate adjustment mechanism (ERAM),
294
Electricity milestones, 110
Electricity prices, 115–117
Electromagnetism, 24–26
Electrolysis of water, 227
Electromotive force (emf), 25–26, 42, 119
Elliott microturbines, 172–177
Emissions of power plants, 126, 130–131,
289–291, 378
End-use energy, 113–116, 170
Energy conservation supply curves, 256–260
Energy chargeable to power, 263, 289–290
Energy efficiency rating (EER), 273
Energy policy act of 1992 (EPAct), 153–154,
157
Energy production factor for trackers, 544–545
Energy service companies (ESCOs), 292
Energy sources for electricity, 114
Enron, 162
Enthalpy, 210–213
Entropy,
fuel cell efficiency, 213–217
heat engines, 123–127
Equation of time, 403
Equinox, 390
Equivalent circuits for photovoltaic cells,
460–468
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) encapsulation,
492
Evaporators, 271–272
Exempt wholesale generators, 153
Extraterrestrial solar spectrum, 389
Fault clearance, 524
Faraday, Michael, 24
Faraday’s law of magnetic induction, 26, 37,
119
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 146,
153–154, 157, 161–162
Ferromagnetic materials, 27, 40–44
Fill factor, 473
Filters, 78, 81
Fixed charge rate, 137
Fluorescent lamps, 36, 90–93, 294–296
Fourier series, 87–89
Friction coefficient, wind power, 319–320
Friction loss in pipes, 586–587
Fuel cells, 156, 206–228
basic operation, 209–210
economics, 267–269
electrical characteristics, 218–221
Gibbs free energy, 217–218
historical development, 208–209
650 INDEX
Fuel cells, (continued )
hydrogen production, 224–228
thermodynamics, 210–217
types of fuel cells, 221–224
Fuel escalation 246–248
Furling windspeed, 356–357
Gallium arsenide, 448, 452, 498
Gas turbines, 131–133, 172–177, 224
General rate cases, 292
Generators, 117–122
back-up for PV systems, 506–507, 550, 580
basic theory, 118–122
induction generators, 329–334
synchronous, 117–118, 328–329
Germanium, 448
Gibbs free energy, 212
Grid-connected photovoltaic systems, 505–506,
521–542
capacity factors, 533–534
dollar per watt ambiguities 544–545
economics of, 544–549
system sizing, 534–542
Grove, Sir William, 208
Harmonics, 87–99
and voltage notching, 94–95
and overloaded neutrals, 95–98
in transformers, 98–99
Heat engines, 122–127
Carnot efficiency, 122–127
Stirling engines, 180–183
Heat of combustion, 171
Heat pumps, 274–277
Heat rate, 129–130
Heat recovery steam generators, 133–134
Heinzerling, ILY 1
Heterojunction photovoltaics, 486, 499
High heating value (HHV), 171–172, 213
High-voltage dc transmission lines, 146–147
Hole-electron pairs, 450–452
Homojunction photovoltaics, 486
Hour angle of the sun, 396
Hybrid PV/generator systems, 579–584
Hydraulic pump curves, 588–591
Hydraulic system curves, 585–588
Hydroelectric power, 144, 194–206
Hydrogen production, 224–228
Hysteresis losses, 42–44, 98
Ice storage systems, 273–274
Impulse turbines, 203
Independent power producers (IPPs), 154–155,
157
Independent system operators (ISOs), 154,
159–161
Indium phosphide solar cells, 452, 498
Inductance, 29–33
Induction generators, 329–334, 336, 337
Induction motors, 332–333
Inductors, 29–36
circuit relationships, 33–36
in ac circuits, 59–61
in buck converters, 82–86
in buck-boost converters, 515–518
Infrared portion of the spectrum, 387, 453
Initial rate of return, 241
Islanding of photovoltaic systems, 524
Insolation (see Solar insolation),
Insull, Samuel, 109–110, 151
Integrated resource planning (IRP), 291–299
Internal combustion engines, 177–180
Internal rate of return, 244–248
Inverters, 78, 522–523, 526, 538, 550,
554–556
Investor owned utilities (IOUs), 112, 146, 153
Kirchhoff’s laws, 3–7
Lead acid batteries, 557–568
chemistry, 560–562
freezing temperatures, 561
state of charge, 562, 569
storage capacity, 562–565
Lead antimony batteries, 560
Lenz’s law, 26
Levelized bus-bar costs, 251–254
Life-cycle costs 243
Light emitting diodes (LEDs), 450
Lighting,
total demand, 115–116
compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), 90–93
retrofit analysis, 257
Line voltages, 72
Linear current booster, 511–512, 514, 592
Linear power supplies, 78–82
Lithium bromide absorption cooling, 277–278
Load-duration curves, 141–144
Load factor, 239–240
Local time meridian, 402–403
Low heating value (LHV), 171–172, 213
Magnetic declination or deviation, 399–400
Magnetic field intensity, 24–26, 28,
INDEX 651
Magnetic field, rotating 330
Magnetic flux density, 28, 41–44
Magnetic moment, 40
Magnetomotive force (mmf), 26–28, 42
Magnetic units, 28
Marginal costs of power plants, 292–293
Marginal tax brackets, 255, 546
Maximum depth of discharge, 570–571
Maximum power point, 474
Maximum power point tracker (MPPT), 509,
514–521
Maxwell, James Clerk, 108
Methane steam reforming, 226
Microcombustion turbines, 172–177
economics, 253–254, 263–267
Micro-hydropower systems, 194–206
electrical aspects, 205–206
energy head, 196
measuring flow, 201–203
pipe losses, 198
turbines, 203–205
Milankovitch oscillations, 391
Mismatched photovoltaic modules, 525–526
Molten carbonate fuel cells, 223
Motor efficiency, 243–244, 247–247
Motor, dc I-V curves, 510–512
Motor speed controller, 85
Multicrystalline silicon photovoltaics, 491
Multijunction amorphous silicon, 495–497
National Electrical Code for photovoltaics,
539–540
National solar radiation data base, 428–429
Navigation with the sun, 407–408
Net metering, 235–236, 524
Net present value, 242–244
Nominal Operting Cell Temperature (NOCT),
476–477
Nonutility generators (NUGs), 111–112,
154–155
Oersted, Hans Christian, 24, 108
Ohm’s law 10–11
One-sun of insolation, 469, 475
Orbit of the earth, 390–396
Open-circuit voltage, 461
Optical depth, 412
Option value of distributed generation,
280–286
Pacific Gas and Electric bankruptcy, 161
Paramagnetic materials, 27
Parabolic trough solar systems, 185–188,
190
Partial oxidation for hydrogen, 226
Peak hours approach to PV performance,
528–529, 575–579
Peak power demand, 115–116, 127
Pelton turbines, 203–204
Periodic table, 448
Permanent magnet rotor, 41, 118–119
Permanent magnet dc motors, 510–512
Permeability, 27, 41–44
Phase voltages, 72
Phosphoric acid fuel cells, 222
Photodiode pyranometer, 430
Photovoltaic I –V characteristic curves, 463,
469, 473–485
hourly I –V curves, 518–521
shading problems, 464, 477–484
standard test conditions, 473–475
temperature impacts, 475–477
Photovoltaic systems,
annual energy produced, 532–533
area requirements, 537
current-voltage load curves, 508–514
dc and ac rated power, 525–528
grid-connected economics, 544–549
grid-connected systems, 505–506, 521–542
National Electrical Code, 539–540
stand-alone systems, 506–507, 550–584
water pumping systems, 506–507, 584–595
Photovoltaic technologies,
amorphous silicon, 495–497
crystalline silicon technologies, 485–494
efficiencies, 446
equivalent circuits, 460–468
history and sales data, 445–446
multicrystalline silicon, 491
module performance data, 475, 538
thin-film technologies, 492–501
Pitch-controlled turbines, 356
Planck’s constant, 451
Planck’s law, 386
p –n junction, 455–460
Polar mount single-axis tracker, 420–422, 534,
536–537
Polycrystalline photovoltaics, 485
Positive displacement pumps, 588–590
Power factor, 61–67
Power factor correction,
capacitors, 64–67
in three phase circuits, 75–76
in transmission lines, 149–151
Power conditioning unit for PVs, 505–506,
522
652 INDEX
Power plants,
central receiver systems, 189–191
coal-fired, 113–114, 128–131, 156
cogeneration, 135
combined cycle, 133–135, 142, 156
cost parameters, 138
dish/Stirling 183–185
emissions, 126, 130–131, 289–291, 378
gas turbines 131–133, 142, 156
internal combustion engines, 177–180
microturbines, 172–177
parabolic trough solar systems, 185–188
peaking, 127, 135–137, 142
photovoltaics, 445–447, 505–506, 521–542
projected capacity additions, 156
screening curves, 137–141
steam cycle, 127–131, 142
wind turbines, 307–312
Power supplies, 77–86
linear, 78–82
switching, 82–86
Power triangle 63–64
Power quality, 86–99
Present value function, 243
Primary energy, 113
Pressure drop in pipes and fittings, 586–587
Probability density functions, 342–345
Production tax credit (PTC), 377
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, 221
Public goods charges, 159
Public utility commissions, 111, 158, 292
Public utility holding company act (PUHCA),
152, 155
Public utility regulatory policies act (PURPA),
153, 155, 171
Pulse-width modulation (PWM), 85, 516
Pump curves, 588–592
PVUSA test conditions (PTC), 526–528
Pyranometer, 428–431
Pyrheliometer, 428–431
Qualifying facilities (QFs), 153, 155, 158–159,
171
Rankine cycle, 127
Rate structures for utilities, 233–240
Rated windspeed, wind turbines 356
Rayleigh probability density function,
344–347, 357–359
Reactive power, 63–67
Reaction turbines, 203
Real power, 63
Reflected radiation, 417–419
Refrigerator efficiency, 272–273, 552–553
Real-time pricing, 240
Reciprocating internal combustion engines,
177–180
Rectifiers, 78–82
Recuperators, 173
Reflected radiation, 417–419
Regional transmission organizations, 146, 154
Reluctance, 27
Residential wiring systems, 67–69
Resistance:
idealized components 10–13, 55–57
loads for photovoltaics, 508–509
of wires 18, 150
Restructuring, 157–162
AB 1890, 158–160
collapse in California, 160–162
impact of conservation programs, 161–162
Retail wheeling, 154
Reverse saturation current, 459
Ribbon silicon PV technologies, 489–491
Ripple, 80
Roof tilt PV performance impacts, 542
Root-mean-square (rms), 53–55
for harmonics, 93
Rotating magnetic field, 330
Roughness classifications, 319–320
Rural electric cooperatives, 112
Scale parameter, Weibull statistics 343
Screening curves, 137–141
Seasonal energy efficiency rating (SEER), 273
Selenium solar cells, 445
Self-regulating photovoltaic modules, 514–515,
575
Semiconductor physics, 448–460
band gap energy, 448–452
p-n junction diode, 445–460
Shading,
impacts on PV performance, 464, 477–484
site assessments, 398–402
Shape parameter, Weibull statistics, 343
Shared savings programs, 294
Shockley diode equation, 458, 467
Short-circuit current, 461
Silicon photovoltaic technologies, 485–497
Simple payback period, 241
Single-axis trackers,
Single phase wiring, 67–69
Site assessment for shading, 398–402
Skin effect in wire, 17, 151
Sky diffuse factor, 412
Slip speed, 333
Solar angles, summary, 409
INDEX 653
Solar constant, 411, 432
Solar declination, 392–393
Solar fraction, PV/hybrid systems, 579–580
Solar insolation, 385–438
clear sky direct beam, 410–415
diffuse radiation, 415–417
extraterrestrial radiation, 411
measurements, 428–431
monthly average insolation, 431–438,
Appendix E
monthly clear sky insolation, 424–428,
Appendix D
reflected radiation, 417–419
summary of insolation equations, 423
tracking system insolation, 419–422
Solar Living Sourcebook, 551,
Solar power generation,
dish/Stirling, 183–185, 190–191
parabolic troughs, 185–188, 190–191
central receiver systems, 189–191
photovoltaics,
Solar radiation data manual, 435–436,
Appendix E
Solar spectrum, 385–389, 452–453
Solar time and clock time, 396, 402–404
Solstice, 390
Solid oxide fuel cells, 223–224
Spectrum,
of earth, 386–387
of the sun, 387–389
Squirrel cage rotor, 330–332
Stall-controlled turbines, 356
Stand-alone PV systems, 550–584
batteries, 557–572
hybrid systems, 579–584
inverters and system voltage, 554–557
load analysis, 551–557
photovoltaic sizing, 575–578
Standard test conditions (STC) for PVs, 475
Stand by energy consumption, 551–552, 554
Starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries,
558–560
State of charge of lead-acid battery, 562, 569
Steam-cycle power plants, 127–131
Steam injected gas turbines (STIG), 133
Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation, 386
Specific gravity of lead-acid batteries, 562
Stirling engines, 180–185
Sulfation of lead acid batteries, 562
Sun path diagrams, 398–402, Appendix B
Sunrise and sunset calculations, 404–407
Surge power demands of appliances, 558
Switched-mode dc-to-dc converters, 515–518
Switching power supplies, 82–86
Synchronous generators, 119–122, 328–329
System voltage, photovoltaics, 556–557
Tandem amorphous silicon PVs, 495–497
Tax brackets, federal, 256, 546
Tellurium, 448
Tesla, Nicola, 108, 110
Thermistors, 449
Thermopile pyranometers, 430
Thevenin equivalent of batteries, 567
Thin-film photovoltaics, 492–501
Three-phase systems, 69–77
delta connections, 76–77
overloaded neutrals, 95–98
photovoltaic inverters, 523
power factor correction, 75–76
rectifiers, 81–82
synchronous generators, 121–122
transmission lines, 146–147
Time-of-use rates, 235–236
Tip-speed-ratio (TSR), 325–326
Tons of cooling, 273–274
Total harmonic distortion, 92–94
Total resource cost test (TRC), 297–298
Tracking systems, 419–422
Transformers:
and the battle over ac vs. dc 108–109
equivalent circuit, 43–44
fundamental relationships, 38
harmonics 98–99
magnetization losses, 40–44
power factor correction, 64–66
turns ratio, 38
Transmission systems, 145–151
construction expenditures, 286
costs, 145
early systems, 109
FERC Order 888 and 2000, 154
high-voltage dc, 147
history of expenditures, 145
losses, 37, 108–109, 149–150, 287–288
national grid, 146–148
regulation, 153–154
regional transmission or ganizations, 146, 154
voltages 111, 145, 148
wire characteristics, 18, 150
Tropic of Cancer, Capricorn, 393
Ultraviolet portion of the spectrum, 387, 453
Unjust and unreasonable prices, 161
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), 289, 525
Utility cost test, 298
654 INDEX
Utility interactive PV systems, 505–506,
521–542
Utility rate structures, 233–240
demand charges, 236–239
real-time pricing, 240
standard residential rates, 233–234
time-of-use rates, 235
Utilities,
and nonutilities (NUGs), 111–112, 154–155
rates, by state, 115–117, 158
Volt-amps-reactive (VARs), 63–67
Voltage,
definition, 5–6
divider, 15, 19
idealized sources, 9
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, 7
sag, 20, 86
three-phase line and phase voltages, 72–76
Water pumping systems, PV, 584–595
Webers, 27
Weibull probability density function, 343–345,
357–359
Westinghouse, George, 108–109, 151
Wien’s displacement rule, 386
Wind power systems, 307–378
annual energy estimates, 350–351, 361–371
blades, 323–328, 354–355
capacity factors, 367–371
economics, 371–377
environmental impacts, 377–378
wind farms, 351–354
historical development, 307–312
maximum rotor efficiency, 323–325
speed control, 335–338
towers, 319–323
turbine power curves, 355–357
Wind resources,
air density, 316–319
cumulative distribution functions, 357–360
histograms, 338, 366
power in the wind, 312–319, 338
probability density functions, 342–347
wind power classifications 347–349
wind turbine efficiency, 349–350
wind turbine specifications, 364
Wire:
gage and resistance, 17–18, 150
losses, 18–21, 37, 108–109, 149–150,
287–288
residential wiring, 67–69
skin effect, 17
Wholesale wheeling, 154