Yam, Kit L. (ed.). The Wiley encyclopedia of packaging technology

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Stock-laminators are designed to laminate varied sub-

strates together to achieve added thickness or uncommon

stock variations. They simply pass a ﬂat blank over a

surface roll that is revolving in a pan ﬁlled with adhesive,

substrate, and pass the combined sheet through compres-

sion rollers. The ﬁnished product is usually stacked

immediately, ﬂipping every other handful to reduce

warp. Single-face laminate is a is a hybrid process that

begins as a traditional ﬂuted medium adhered to a single

linerboard; but in the place of a second board, a preprinted

sheet of paperboard is laminated to the outer surface.

Miscellaneous Equipment

A well-equipped corrugated plant will require additional

materials handling and ﬁnishing equipment, including lift

trucks, conveyors, bundelers, unitizers, bailers, load turn-

ers, eccentric slotters, quick sets, strippers, and band

saws, plus many custom machines such as riviters.

MANUFACTURER’S JOINTS

Joints applied by the corrugated manufacturer provide

the most practical way to convert a two-dimensional

product into a third-dimensional one. Manufacturer’s

joints, as the name implies, are created by the box

manufacturer. Box users torque containers open, ﬁll

them, and seal them closed by gluing, stapling, or taping.

Edges that meet during closure are called seams.

Joints are glued, taped, or stitched. Glued and stitched

containers employ a 1 1/4-in. lap that is a contiguous part

of a length or width panel that will be glued or stitched to

the opposing panel when the panels are folded to meet.

Glued joints became the joint of preference in the 1960s.

Almost all high-speed ﬂexo presses and folders are

equipped to run glued joints. Some volume box users are

equipped with wraparound machines that fold ﬂat blanks

around a product and seal joints and seams in place. This

process eliminates the need for a manufacturer’s joint

from the box manufacturer, which in some cases saves cost

and in all cases produces a more tightly wrapped package.

Stitching is not used in food packaging products.

Glued and stitched joints are produced with the lap on

either the inside or the outside of the container. Both have

their advantages. Inside laps present a ﬁnished outside

edge that presents a better appearance and allows more

print area. Outside laps leave a smooth surface on all four

inside panels of a carton. (See Figure 3.)

DIMENSIONING

Three-dimensional cartons are designated by

length width depth. Length and width are the longer

and shorter dimensions of the opening of a box, and depth

is the third dimension. Two-dimensional parts are desig-

nated by supplying the ﬂute direction as the ﬁrst dimen-

sion. Dimensions can be speciﬁed for either the inside or

the outside of a box. Accurate inside dimensions must be

determined to ensure the proper ﬁt for the product being

shipped or stored. At the same time, palletizing and

distributing the boxes depends on the outside dimensions.

The box manufacturer must be informed as to which

dimension is most important to the customer (3).

Corrugated board has a deﬁnite caliper, which was

noted in Figure 1; consequently, scoring allowances must

be considered when dimensioning boxes and interiors.

One-half thickness of board is lost for each 901 bend. See

an example in Figure 4.

CORRUGATED ECONOMICS

Carton economics demands that solid geometric ﬁgures

(pertaining to three dimensions, L W D) must be re-

duced to plain geometric ﬁgures (pertaining to two

Figure 3. Examples of joints.

Figure 4. Score and ﬂuting. Score B ﬂute 1/8 in. (3.175 mm)

thick at 3 1/16 in. 4 1/8 in. (7.79 cm 10.48 cm 7.79 cm) to

achieve inside dimensions of 3 in. 4 in. 3 in. (7.62 cm 

10.16 cm 7.62 cm).

168 BOXES, CORRUGATED

dimensions, L W) for manufacturing speciﬁcations and

cost analysis. (See Figure 5).

Having established the single-plane dimensions of a

container (L W ), the area per piece can be established.

This area is calculated in square inches per piece, which is

generally referred to in square feet per 1000 blanks, that

is, L in. W in. divided by 144 1000 = square feet (ft

1000 pieces.

Corrugated box costs are functions of raw material,

plus manufacturing, administrating, and delivering costs;

consequently, a major objective in box design is to max-

imize ﬁll area and minimize the blank dimension required

to do so. Several principles to consider that will accom-

plish this maxim follow:

1. The most economical RSC (regular slotted con-

tainer) formula is L =2W = D.

2. Rectangular RSCs are more economical than square

RSCs.

3. Square tubes are more economical then rectangular

tubes.

4. Width is the least economical dimension of an RSC.

5. Depth is the most economical dimension of an RSC.

BOX STYLES

Box styles and interiors are too numerous to discuss in

this article, and can best be referred to in the Fibre Box

Handbook (4). Most designs are designated by their

closure feature. The most used box is the regular slotted

container (RSC), which features the most economical use

of board from the corrugator. All ﬂaps are equal in depth,

and the width of the outer ﬂaps equals one-half that of the

containers, so they meet to form a seam at the center of the

box when folded. An alternative to the RSC is a wrap-

around design. The manufacturer supplies a ﬂat blank to

the packer. This is folded around the product and overlap

is sealed. One-piece packaging to meet speciﬁc market

needs, such as the carry-home pack for bottles of wine,

shows considerable design ingenuity (1).

Figure 5. Example of reduction to plain geometric ﬁgure.

Figure 6. Typical plant ﬂoorplan.

BOXES, CORRUGATED 169

Carton designers using CAD/CAM computer programs

generate intricate new designs that enhance packing

programs and support marketing schemes. Today’s world

of discount stores requires containers that function as

sales tools that fully describe the product enclosed as well

as protecting the product for delivery to the consumer.

RECYCLING

Corrugated material, made from a natural renewable

resource, is frequently manufactured from recycled ﬁber,

is often reused many times, and then is recycled for use in

other packaging materials. Used corrugated containers

are very adaptable to recycling; in fact, they represent the

major source of recycled paper today. Over 76% of recycled

containers are reclaimed for paperboard used to make

more corrugated boxes (5). Box manufacturers have

learned to make stronger boxes using less raw material.

This is called source reduction. Corrugated packaging also

allows for signiﬁcant source reduction by eliminating the

need for overwraps and secondary packaging (5). The

industry is working on problems that occur during the

repulping process. New adhesives are being developed

that will help prevent ‘‘stickies’’ from forming that can

clog the papermaking equipment. Stickies can originate

from wax coatings, labels, and adhesives. Figure 6 illus-

trates a rough ﬂoorplan of a typical box plant.

INDUSTRY FUTURE

The corrugated industry is mature, meaning that it has

developed a full share of the possible market and that

most volume advances come through volume increase in

existing markets. An unavoidable outcome of the globali-

zation of the world economy is an escalated need for

distribution of goods in terms of ready-made products

from the globabl enterprise to its customers in the global

market as well as extensive transport of materials, parts,

and subsystems from external and/or internal suppliers to

assembly plants. Effective packaging and logistics solu-

tions have become key factors in order to maintain or

improve competitiveness of these enterprises. These pat-

terns also affect national and small- to medium-sized

enterprises. A signiﬁcant driving force is the quest for

the optimal package. It is not only necessary that the

package provide fundamental functions, but also that it be

accomplished at the lowest possible cost with a minimum

of environmental impact. A key factor is to minimize the

mass of the package. A beneﬁt to the industry would be

the reduction of the amount of raw material used. An

additional important factor is to realize that in the future

the sources of raw materials may change and vary in

quality. These factors emphasize the necessity to use

effectively the ﬁber strength of the raw material, and

current research is aimed in this direction (6).

Undoubtedly the most beneﬁcial adjustment the con-

sumer will receive is the move to high-performance liner-

board and the corresponding change from burst test

to edge-crush test. This very signiﬁcant change will

ultimately result in not only lower direct costs but also

lower freight and handling costs. The combination of

stronger paperboard at lower basis weights will also result

in a reduction of waste tonnage and pulp consumption.

High-performance linerboard will improve machine efﬁ-

ciencies and printing capabilities.

High-graphics containers are claiming a larger share of

the market. Packagers are accepting the corrugated con-

tainer as a sales tool in addition to its use as a shipping

container. Exotic labeling equipment and preprinted liner

laminates are becoming more common to the industry, and

the trend continues toward faster in-line converting ma-

chines that incorporate printing, slotting, die cutting,

folding, and gluing into one piece of equipment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. A. Foster, ‘‘Boxes, Corrugated’’ in The Wiley Encyclopedia of

Packaging, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997,

pp. 100–108.

Cited Publications

1. J. Poutis, ‘‘Corrugated-Fibreboard Packaging’’ in M. J. Kerwin,

ed., Paper and Paperboard Packaging Technology, Blackwell

Publishing, Oxford, 2005.

2. Uniform Freight Classiﬁcation 6000-F, National Railroad

Freight Committee, Chicago.

3. ‘‘All About Corrrugated,’’ Corrugated Packaging, www.corru-

gated.org/basics. Accessed April 2008.

4. Fibre Box Handbook, Fibre Box Association, 2850 Golf Road,

Rolling Meadows, IL.

5. ‘‘Recycling,’’ Corrugated Packaging, www.corrugated.org/recy-

ling. Accessed April 2008.

6. G. Jonson and co-workers, Towards an Increased Utilization of

Fibre Strength in Box Production-Project Summary, Division of

Packaging Logistics, Lund University, Sweden, 2005.

BOXES, RIGID, PAPERBOARD

LARRY LYNCH

JULIA ANDERSON

National Paperbox and

Packaging Association

Updated by Staff

INTRODUCTION

Rigid-paperboard boxes are also called ‘‘setup’’ boxes. Un-

like folding cartons (see Cartons, Folding), they are deliv-

ered to the packager setup and ready to use. The rigid box

was originally used by the Chinese, who were among the

earliest to discover a process for making strong and

ﬂexible paper from rice ﬁber. The ﬁrst known use for a

paper box was tea. The word box generally means a

receptacle with stiff sides as distinguished from a basket,

170 BOXES, RIGID, PAPERBOARD

and boxes were so named because they were ﬁrst made

from a tree called Box or Boxwood.

Boxes for gift-giving became popular over 2000 years

ago when the Roman priests encouraged people to send

presents during the seasons of rejoicing. The paperboard

box of current use originated in the 16th century, with the

invention of pasteboard. In Europe, one of the earliest

types of paper boxes was commonly known as a band box.

It was a box highly decorated by hand and was used to

carry bands and rufﬂes worn by the Cavaliers and Ladies

of the Court. It was not until 1844 that setup boxes were

manufactured in the United States. Starting with a

machine that cut the corners of the box, Colonel Andrew

Dennison soon found that manufacturing boxes by hand

was tedious work and developed the Dennison Machine,

which led to the creation of the Dennison Manufacturing

Company. The Colonel’s invention was revolutionary, but

until the Civil War, most consumer products were pack-

aged in paper bags or wrapped in paper. There were only

about 40 boxmakers in the country, and most boxes were

made by hand. For these 40 craftsmen the box business

was merely an adjunct to other lines of business, which

varied from printing to the manufacture of the consumer

items they would eventually pack.

In 1875, John T. Robison, who had worked with Colonel

Dennison and others, developed the ﬁrst modern scoring

machine, corner cutter, and shears. These three machines

still form the machinery basis for most box shops, but it

was not until the end of World War II that signiﬁcant

progress was made to improve the production of machin-

ery for the industry. Today’s machinery takes a scored

piece of blank boxboard through to the ﬁnished covered

box.

DESIGN

A deﬁning characteristic of the rigid box is the freedom it

allows with respect to shape, materials, use of accessories,

and overall presentation (1). Rigid boxes may be large,

small, square, rectangular, or elliptical in shape. The basic

form is the lift-off-lid box. Examples of other forms are the

shell and slide book style, combining trays with different

hinged lids (for jewelry boxes) and combining rigid board

jackets with pockets for DVDs. The two major factors in

the appeal of the rigid box are quality and perceived

luxury. In marketing terms, a product must be shown to

its best advanatage. This is sometimes achieved by mak-

ing the product visible, especially when displayed at the

point of purchase. More is usually achieved by graphics,

window patching, and the use of transparent plastic lids

(2). A simple lift off box with good graphics may be enough

of an appeal, but a round, oval, or heart-shaped box may

be required for packaging chocolates.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The process starts when sheets of paperboard, made

principally from recycled ﬁbers, are sent through a ma-

chine known as a scorer. The scorer has circular knives

that either cut through or partially cut through the paper-

board and form the box blanks from the full sheet. The

scorers must be set twice, once for the box and once for the

lid, since there is usually a variation of 1/8–3/8 in. (3.2–

9.5 mm) between the box and the lid. After the individual

box blanks are broken from the full sheet, they are stacked

and prepared for corner cutting. Once the corners are cut,

the basic box blank is ready. Die cutting, usually per-

formed on a platen press and an alternative method of

cutting blanks, is economically justiﬁable for large orders.

The blanks are now ready for staying. For small

quantities the box blanks can be sent through a single

stayer where an operator must ﬁrst bend all four sides of

the blank to prebreak the scores. The single-staying

machine will then glue a strip of 7/8-in. (22-mm)-width

kraft paper of the required length to each corner of the

box. For greater quantities the boxmaker uses a quad

stayer. The quad stayer feeds the box blanks automati-

cally under a plunger that has the same block size as the

box or cover to be formed. With each stroke of the machine,

the box blank sides are turned up and stay paper is

applied to all four corners at one time.

After staying, the box is in acceptable form, requiring

only an attractive outer wrap. In most operations, the

paper box wrap is placed onto the conveyor gluer, which

applies hot glue to the back of the wrap and then places it

on a traveling belt. The wrap is held in place by suction

under the belt. As the wrap travels on the belt, either it is

removed from the belt by a machine operator, who manu-

ally spots the paperboard box on the wrap, or it is

automatically spotted by machine. After spotting, the

box and wrap move on to another plunger mechanism

where the wrap is forced around the box. Simultaneously,

nylon brushes smooth the paper to the four sides of the

box. Just before the plunger reaches the bottom of the

stroke, the wooden block splits, allowing metal ‘‘ﬁngers’’ to

push the paper in the box. The wooden block then closes

together and completes its downstroke where felt-lined

blocks press the sides and ensure the gluing of the paper

to the inside as well as the outside of the box.

The manufacturing process described above is for the

simplest box, but the setup box can accommodate unusual

requirements with regard to windows, domes, embossing,

platforms, hinges, lids, compartments, and other varia-

tions. Standard variations of the rigid box include the

telescope box, the ended box, the padded-cover box, special

shapes (e.g., oval, heart-shaped), slide tray, neck or

shoulder style, hinged cover, slanted side, full telescope,

box-in-box, specialty box, interior partition, extension

bottom,

three-piece, slotted partition,

and interior plat-

form. This versatility is extremely valuable in meeting the

merchandiser’s demands for quality, quantity, and conve-

nience. Figures 1 and 2 show a familiar candy box and an

unusual conﬁguration for cosmetics.

MATERIALS

Four primary materials are needed for manufacturing the

rigid box: chipboard (for the rough box), stay paper (to

hold the sides of the box together), glue (to hold the outer

BOXES, RIGID, PAPERBOARD 171

wrap to the box), and outer wraps (for the decorative

appearance).

There are four common types of chipboard used

in boxmaking: plain, vat-lined, book-lined, and ‘‘solid

news.’’ Plain chipboard is made entirely of waste paper,

with the minimum of selection or de-inking of waste. Vat-

lined chipboard provides a cleaner appearance. It is

primarily chipboard with a liner (made of low-grade white

waste paper) that is applied on the board machine at the

mill. Book-line chipboard is chipboard with a liner of book

or litho paper pasted to one or two sides as a separate

operation. ‘‘Solid news’’ differs from plain chipboard in

that the waste used in this sheet is a little more selected

and is made mostly from newspaper waste that has

been de-inked. Other boards are available, including

glassine-lined, foil-lined, and folding grades of boxboard,

but the four listed above are those that are primarily used.

To properly serve the customer, a boxmaker must stock

various sizes and weights of board. Setup boxboard is

measured in basis weight: A 50-lb (22.7-kg) bundle of

50-basis-weight boxboard contains 50 standard 26 40-

in. (66–102-cm) sheets; a 50-lb (22.7 kg) bundle of 40 basis

weight boxboard contains 40 sheets. The larger the basis

weight, the thinner the sheet.

Stay paper is almost always 7/8-in. (22-cm)-wide kraft or

white paper. Glues are either animal- or starch-based,

formulated to dry fast or slow. They are available in dry

form for mix-it-yourself, or ﬂexible form to melt as used.

Most glue is hot-melted to give a faster drying and lay-ﬂat

quality to the paper with minimal warping (see Adhesives).

The ﬁnal ingredient in box manufacturing is the outer

wrap. There are thousands of stock papers, most of them

available in 26-in. (66-cm) or 36-in. (91.4-cm) rolls. The

wraps are generally paper, but foil and cloth wraps are

also used. Through the use of artwork, photography, and

good printing, a boxmaker can also produce a distinctive

custom-made wrap.

Modern boxmakers make extensive use of CAD sys-

tems for samples and limited production runs, which are

often cut on computer-driven plotter tabes (2).

APPLICATIONS

The rigid (setup) box has stood the test of time and

competes well within its selected markets. It protects, it

builds image, it displays, and it sells. The setup box

possesses unique qualities that satisfy the speciﬁc needs

of all four segments of the marketing chain: the consumer,

the retailer, the marketer, and the product packager. The

boxes are delivered setup and ready to load. Small ‘‘mar-

ket-test’’ or emergency quantities can be prepared quickly

at low cost, and individual custom designs are available

without expensive investment in special tools, jigs, or dies.

The rigid ‘‘feel’’ creates consumer conﬁdence, and the

manufacturing process permits utilization of varied over-

wraps to reﬂect product quality. The boxes are easy to

open, reclose, and reuse without destroying the package.

Rigid boxes are recyclable and made from recycled ﬁbers.

Production runs can be small, medium, or large, and

volume can ﬂuctuate without excessive economic penal-

ities. In addition, these boxes provide lasting reuse fea-

tures for repeat advertising for the seller. They are

customized to provide product identity. Rugged strength

protects the product from plant to consumer. Reinforced

corners and dual sides provide superior product protection

and minimize damage losses.

The markets for rigid boxes are as follows: tableware,

jewelry and watches, perfumes and cosmetics, music and

video games, stationery and ofﬁce supplies, luxury bev-

erages, chocolate and confectionery and gifts, boxed greet-

ing cards, photographic trade products, engineering and

DIY tools, and medical equipment (2).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Larry Lynch and Julia Anderson, ‘‘Boxes Rigid-Paperboard’’ in

M. Bakker, ed., The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging

Figure 1. A familiar example of a rigid paperboard box.

Figure 2. The high-fashion look of a lacquered wooden box is

copied with style in the glossy ﬁnish and ﬁne detail work of this

rigid box designed for Lanco

me cosmetics. Especially noteworthy

is the registration of the gold-stamped border on the wrap of each

separate drawer. Brass drawer-pulls complete the illusion.

Shelves are sturdy and wrapped, allowing the drawer to slide in

and out smoothly.

172 BOXES, RIGID, PAPERBOARD

Technology, 1st edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986,

pp. 76–78; 2nd edition, A. J. Brody and K. S. Marsh, eds., 1997,

pp. 108–110.

Cited Publications

1. R. Laszlo and G. L. Wyybenga, The Packaging Designers Book

of Patterns, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991.

2. M. Jukes, ‘‘Rigid Boxes’’ in M. J. Kirwin, ed., Paper and

Paperboard Packaging Technology, Blackwell Publishers,

London, 2005.

BOXES, RIGID, PLASTIC

RICHARD M. BRASINGTON

Buckhorn, Milford, Ohio

Rigid plastic containers have been used for many years in

a wide variety of consumer and industrial applications.

Some of the more familiar uses have been as the bread

trays, milk crates, and beverage cases that one might see

in a supermarket; as cosmetic and shampoo bottles; or as

medicine bottles or blister packs used to display consumer

goods on a store rack. Some of these and less-familiar uses

are touched on in this article, and the processes used to

produce this wide range of containers are covered as well.

Finally, container conﬁgurations and applications in the

emerging category of reusable shipping containers are

described in some depth.

There are ﬁve major processes used to manufacture

rigid plastic containers: injection molding, compression

molding, blow molding, rotational molding, and thermo-

forming. Each process is suited to the production of a

range of geometries with a variety of materials at different

costs. A complete description of these processes, materials,

and applications is beyond the scope of this article, but

an overview is possible and will be helpful for later

discussions.

TYPES OF MOLDING

Injection Molding

In this process a heated, softened plastic material is forced

from a cylinder into a cool mold cavity, which results in a

plastic product matching the geometry of the cavity of the

mold. Generally, molds are expensive, but they produce

the widest variety of part shapes at very high rates of

production (see Injection Molding).

Compression Molding

This process uses preheated thermosets and high mechan-

ical pressure to shape the material between male and

female portions of a die. The mold cavities are preheated

themselves, and the parts are removed after they have

been cured under pressure. Many ﬁberglass and polyester

parts are made with this method in which tooling costs are

moderately expensive and production rates are moder-

ately high. (see Compression Molding).

Blow Molding

This is most often used to shape hollow items like bottles.

A tube of hot melt, called a parison, is extruded between

the open halves of a chilled mold. The mold halves are

clamped together, pinching off the tube at the ends. Air or

an air and water mist is injected into the cavity, inﬂating

the soft tube against the mold surfaces. Cooling time is

quick, tooling costs are moderate, and production rates are

extremely high (see Blow Molding).

Rotational Molding

This is also a process for producing hollow, seamless

products. In this method, a powder or liquid plastic is

placed in a mold; the mold is heated and rotated about two

perpendicular axes simultaneously and then cooled. After

the material solidiﬁes, the mold is opened and the part is

removed. Tooling and equipment costs are low, but pro-

duction rates are slow, and the geometry of the parts

produced is limited.

Thermoforming

This involves elevating the temperature of a thermoplas-

tic sheet material to a workable level and forming it to

shape. The forming process draws the sheet by a vacuum

into an open, chilled mold. Like rotational molding, the

tool costs are low, but production rates are slow, and there

are limitations to the complexity of the part geometry.

REUSABLE SHIPPING CONTAINERS

All of these processes can be used to manufacture reusable

shipping containers, but by far the most often used

method is injection molding. This process is best suited

for reusable shipping containers because it allows intri-

cate shapes to be molded at high rates of production. The

molds last a long time, and relatively low unit costs can be

achieved.

The reusable shipping container (RSC) concept is sim-

ple: A container is loaded with product and shipped to its

destination, where it is emptied. The empty container is

sent back to the supplier, reﬁlled with product, and then

shipped again to its end-user destination. The cycle is then

repeated over and over again.

While the concept is not new, its application in a wide

variety of industries has spurred increased usage. Repla-

cing expendable corrugated packaging with RSCs saves

money, reduces worker injuries, and helps the environ-

ment. Money is saved by purchasing plastic containers

once and reusing them instead of buying corrugated

cartons each time a shipment is made. Worker safety

and health are improved by providing easy-to-lift boxes

with ergonomic handles. And the environment is helped

by using recyclable plastic in the containers and eliminat-

ing the dumping of corrugated cartons in the landﬁlls.

BOXES, RIGID, PLASTIC 173

APPLICATIONS

Plastic reusable shipping containers have been used for

years by wholesale bakeries shipping bread, by dairies

shipping milk, and by soft-drink bottlers shipping 2-L

bottles into supermarkets. More recently, drug chains,

hardware stores, chain restaurants, and durable goods

manufacturers have realized the beneﬁts of reusables.

Drug and grocery wholesalers pick from their incoming

bulk shipments into reusable hand-held totes for split

case shipment to individual stores where the contents are

then unloaded onto retail shelves. Much of the recent

growth in this category can be attributed to the auto-

motive industry and their suppliers that ship component

parts into assembly plants. The produce industry is

another large user, harvesting into reusable containers

in the ﬁeld, shipping to the packing houses, and then

sending them to supermarkets in the same container.

This eliminates the cost of corrugated packaging and the

double handling associated with repacking into corru-

gated boxes.

A relatively new application for reusable plastic ship-

ping containers has been with bulk liquid loads. These are

referred to as intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), and

they are collapsible bulk containers with a plastic ﬁlm

liner. They have been used to ship tomato paste, liquid

eggs, syrups, and cosmetics, to name a few. To provide the

strength to carry liquid loads, these IBCs are made from

either (a) an engineered resin or (b) hot-plate-welded high-

density polyethylene (HDPE), or polypropylene. In hot-

plate welding, two halves of the base and wall units are

welded together with steel, ﬁberglass, or pultruded rods

sealed inside the walls for rigidity.

TYPES OF CONTAINER

Various container types can be used in these applications,

and most are injection-molded from HDPE, or polypropy-

lene. Generally, there are four categories of RSCs: nest

only, stack only, stack and nest, and collapsible. Each type

has its advantages and disadvantages as outlined in the

remainder of this article.

Nest-Only Containers

Nest-only containers (see Figure 1) have tapered walls

that allow them to ﬁt inside each other or ‘‘nest’’ when

they are empty. These are inexpensive containers to make,

but they require racks or shelves to sit on when they are

full of product.

Stack-Only Containers

Stack-only containers (see Figure 2) have straight walls

and good interior room for optimal utilization of interior

space. They have excellent stacking stability and make

good over-the-road containers. Because they stack only,

they take up a lot of space and are inefﬁcient when stored

empty. Lids are not necessary for stacking, but could be

used to keep dirt out of the containers.

Stack-and-Nest Containers

There are ﬁve types of stack-and-nest containers:

1. 901 Stack-and-Nest. By turning a container 901,

containers can either stack on top of each other or

nest inside one another. They do not need a lid and

are generally inexpensive. Depending on the conﬁg-

uration, they can be good for over-the-road transport.

2. 1801 Stack-and-Nest Containers. (see Figure 3). Si-

milar to the 901 version, with a 1801 turn a container

can be either nested when empty or stacked when

full. Stacking posts on the inside ends of the con-

tainer allow this versatility, but they take up inter-

ior room and take up potential product space.

3. Attached-Lid Containers (see Figure 4). These are

nest-only containers with lids that are attached,

usually by a metal hinge wire. They are ideal

Figure 1. Nest only.

Figure 2. Stack only.

Figure 3. 1801 stack and nest.

Figure 4. Attached lid.

174 BOXES, RIGID, PLASTIC

over-the-road shipping containers and provide an

excellent unitized load. They stack when the lids are

closed and nest when the lids are open and are one of

the most popular RSC.

4. Detached-Lid Containers. These are basically nest-

only containers with lids that make excellent

over-the-road shipping containers. They stack

when the lids are snapped on, and, they nest when

the lids are removed. These are the easiest lidded

containers to clean, but do require keeping track of

both boxes and separate lids.

5. Bail Containers (see Figure 5). These are nest-only

containers with ‘‘bails’’ that ﬂip in to allow stacking

and ﬂip outside the container to allow nesting. They

make good transportation containers, are easy to

clean, and do not require the tracking of separate

lids and boxes.

Collapsible Containers

There are several types of collapsible containers. For bulk

boxes (see Figure 6), which are generally built on a pallet

base and 30 in. high, the most efﬁcient design has side

and end walls that are hinged at the base and fold inward

ﬂat on themselves. With straight walls, these offer excel-

lent interior space utilization, and when they are empty

and collapsed, they offer efﬁcient storage. They generally

come with optional detached lids.

Smaller collapsible totes (see Figure 7) offer the same

interior space efﬁciencies and collapsible storage beneﬁts

as do bulk boxes. They are more commonly designed like

collapsible bulk boxes, but some are designed accordion

style as in Figure 7; both have collapsing design and can

be open-topped or have a detached or attached lid. The

accordion style can accommodate an attached lid as well.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

General References

1. E. A. Leonard, Packaging Economics, Books for Industry,

New York, 1980.

2. S. Sacharow and R. C. Grifﬁn, Jr., Plastics in Packaging,

Cahners Publishing, Boston, 1973.

3. J. F. Hanlon, Handbook of Package Engineering, 2nd edition,

McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.

4. K. Auguston, ‘‘A Selection Guide to Returnable Containers,’’

Modern Materials Handling, 42–43 (November 1995).

BOXES, SOLID-FIBER

ROBERT QUINN

Union Camp Corporation

Updated by Staff

INTRODUCTION

Solid-ﬁber containers are used almost exclusively for

applications in which container return and reuse are

desirable and where return can be controlled by the

distributor. Without such control, the impetus to use the

multitrip shipping containers, which are more costly than

corrugated boxes, would not exist.

As a rule of thumb, the solid-ﬁber box costs two to three

times as much as a comparable-size general-purpose

corrugated shipper. However, the solid-ﬁber container

can be used an average of 10–15 times before retirement.

The economics are obvious, but only in a ‘‘closed-loop’’

distribution system.

Solid ﬁberboard differs from corrugated board in sev-

eral signiﬁcant respects (see Boxes, corrugated). As its

name implies, the former is a solid (nonﬂuted) structure

consisting of two or more plies of containerboard. Four

plies generally are used to manufacture board from which

solid-ﬁber boxes are to be produced. Standard quality solid

ﬁberboard is more resistant to water and damp conditions

than are standard corrugate ﬁberboards.

FABRICATION

Solid board is made either on a multi-ply paperboard

machine forming with vats or by a combination of forming

methods. It is also made by multi-ply lamination. Solid

ﬁberboard packaging is manufactured primarily from

recycled material. It is both recyclable and biodegradable

at the end of its useful life (1).

Solid-ﬁber sheets are constructed by gluing roll-fed

containerboard plies together on a machine called a

laminator. The plies are bonded under controlled pressure

Figure 5. Bail.

Figure 6. Collapsible bulk box.

Figure 7. Collapsible tote.

BOXES, SOLID-FIBER 175

to form a sheet that comes off the line as a continuous strip

that is subsequently cut to predetermined lengths (2).

Caliper of the ﬁnished board is the result of the number

and thickness of individual plies. It varies according to

the needs of the customer market. For most applications,

ﬁnished sheet thickness ranges between 0.035 and 0.135

in. (0.089 and 0.343 cm). (In the industry lexicon, 0.035 in.

is called 35 points). For special heavy-duty applications,

solid ﬁberboard of 250-point thickness can be produced.

This, however, is the exception. For the largest market

(shipping containers), board thickness averages 70–80

points (0.18–0.20 cm).

When the continuous web of solid ﬁberboard exits the

laminator, it is cut to length. Converting equipment

prints, diecuts, and, if needed, coats the material with

polyethylene or other protective ﬁnish. Solid ﬁberboard

packaging is supplied ﬂat to save space in storage and

distribution. It can be erected by the packer manually or

with mechanical assistance (1). When product volume is

high and a high packing speed is required, fully automatic

machinery is used for erecting, packing, and closing.

A principal difference in construction between solid-

ﬁber and corrugated boxes is that rail and highway

shipping-authority rules limit solid-ﬁber boxes to only

two styles of manufacturer’s joints; stitched and ex-

tended-glued. Standard methods for testing solid-ﬁber

boxes have been developed and published by the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry

(TAPPI). Common-carrier requirements for solid-ﬁber box

performance (burst strength, size, and weight limits) have

been established and are fully detailed in Rule 41 of the

Uniform Freight Classiﬁcation (rail shipment) and Item 22

of the National Motor Freight Classiﬁcation (truck ship-

ment) (see Laws and regulations).

APPLICATIONS

Solid ﬁberboard is used in a wide range of packaging and

display applications such as the packaging of horticultural

produce, meat and poultry, and ﬁsh. Beer bottles and

cans are packed in a wrap-around lithioprinted multipack.

Compartmentalized machine-erected trays are typically

used for multipacks of plastic yogurt cups. Solidboard is

also used in shoe box packaging. Products that are heavy,

are likely to shift during transportation, require protec-

tion, and possibly have protruding parts need the protec-

tion of puncture-resistant solid board. It is also used for

export packaging (1).

After containers, the largest use of solid ﬁberboard is for

slip sheets. Slip sheets are used in materials-handling

applications, chieﬂy as replacements for bulkier and more

expensive wood pallets. Designed for forklift handling and

requiring minimal warehouse space, solid-ﬁber slip sheets

are easy to use and store. Slip sheets are made from three

plies of kraft. Polyethylene-lined board and hard-sized board

can be used for wet/damp conditions. An anti-skid varnish

can be applied to the slip sheet to assist load stability (1).

Divisions or partitions of solid ﬁberboard are used

to create cells in a case or box wherein individual items

and packaged products can be placed. It is superior to

corrugated board for this purpose and does not indent

with the shape of the upturned container. Other uses

include point of purchase displays, furniture (sheets are

afﬁxed to the wooden framework to provide a ﬁrm back-

ing for upholstery), and mirror backing. Automative

applications include non-load-bearing interior bulkheads.

Drums, railcar dunnage, and wire- and-cordage reels, are

other miscellaneous uses in which solid ﬁberboard’s

strength, damage resistance, and machinability are cost-

effective.

See Figure 1 for some examples of solid-ﬁber

containers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. R. Quinn, ‘‘Boxes, Solid Fibre’’ in M. Bakker, ed., The Wiley

Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, 1st edition, John Wiley

& Sons, New York, 1986, pp. 80–81; 2nd edition, A. J. Brody

and K. S. Marsh, eds., 1997, pp. 112–113.

Figure 1. Solid-ﬁber beverages cases and tote boxes. (a) 1, One-

piece bin box with locking feature; 2, three-piece 24/12-oz.

(355 mL) beverage case; 3, one-piece vegetable box; 4, attache-

style tote box. (b) 5, one-piece 4/1-gal (3.785-L) beverage case; 6,

attache-style tote box; 7, one-piece lidded tote box; 8, one-piece self-

locking tote box; 9, three-piece 24/12-oz. (355 mL) beverage case.

176 BOXES, SOLID-FIBER

Cited Publications

M. J. Kirwan, ‘‘Solid Fibreboard Packaging’’ in M. J. Kirwan, ed.,

Paper and Paperboard Packaging Technology, Blackwell Pub-

lishing, London, 2005.

W. Soroka, Fundamentals Packaging Technology, Institute of

Packaging, UK, 1996.

BOXES, WOOD

The use of wooden boxes and crates dates back to the

Industrial Revolution, when the building of roads and

railways led to their development as the ﬁrst ‘‘modern’’

shipping containers (1). (See also Boxes, wirebound; Pal-

lets, wood.) They still are used today for products that

require the strength and protection that only wood can

provide. The difference between a box (or case) and a

crate is that a box is a rigid container with closed faces

that completely enclose the contents. A crate is a rigid

container of framed construction. The framework may or

may not be enclosed (sheathed) (2).

Figure 1.

Figure 2. Simple wooden crate.

BOXES, WOOD 177