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Table 2. Continued

Color Permanency,

Indoor

Fadeometer, Max

Plastic Applicability

Common Name

Color Index Name

Number

CAS Registry

Number Application

Masstone

Tint

Wide Use

Limited Use

Some Other Data

Phthalocyanine

Green (Cl, Br)

A,B,D,E,H,I,J,K,L,M,

N,O,P ,Q

Cobalt titanate

green spinel

Green 50 77377 [68186-85-6

Outstanding chemical, light,

and heat stability

Blue Pigments

Victoria Blue

(PTMA)

Blue 1 42595:2 [1325-87-7

]

1,3

20–40

5–10

Outstanding brilliance

Victoria Blue

(SMA)

Blue 1:2 42595:3 [68413-81-0

]

1,3

30–40

5–10

SMA salt is stronger than

PMS/PTMA but not as

clean

Victoria Blue

(PMA)

Blue 1:x 42595:x [68409-66-5

]

1,3

15–40

5–10

Printing inks with lustrous

appearance

Permanent Blue

(PMA) Peacock

Blue 9:x 42025:x [68814-07-3

]

1,3

Excellent color purity and

strength

Phthalocyanine

Blue Alpha (red

crystallizing)

Blue 15 74160 [147-14-8

]

1,2

120–320

FLZ

120–160

A,B,C,D,E,G,H,I,J,

K,L,M,N,O,P,Q

Excellent transparency,

chemical resistance, and

lightfastness

Phthalocyanine

Blue Alpha (R,

NC)

Blue 15:1 74160

74250

[147-14-8

]

[12239-87-1

]

1,2

120–320

FLZ

120–160

A,B,C,D,E,G,H,I,J,

K,L,M,N,O,P,Q

Phthalocyanine

Blue Alpha (R,

NCNF)

Blue 15:2 74160

74250

[147-14-8

]

[12239-87-1

]

1,2,3

120–320

FLZ

80–160

A,B,C,D,E,G,H,I,J,K,

L,M,N,O,P,Q

Phthalocyanine

Blue Beta (G,

NC)

Blue 15:3 74160 [147-14-8

]

1,2

120–320

FLZ

120–160

A,B,C,D,E,G,H,I,J,K,

L,M,N,O,P,Q

Standard process cyan.

Phthalocyanine

Blue Beta (G,

NCNF)

Blue 15:4 74160 [147-14-8

]

1,2

120–320

FLZ

80–160

A,B,C,D,E,G,H,I,J,K,

L,M,N,O,P,Q

Phthalocyanine

Blue (metal free)

Blue 16 74100 [574-93-6

]

A,G,K,L,M,N,O,P

Fugitive Peacock

Blue (Ba)

Blue 24 42090:1 [6548-12-5

Iron Blue, Milori

Blue

Blue 27 77510 [25869-00-5

W160

20–80

B,C,D,H,J,L,N,O,P,Q

Cobalt Blue

Blue 28 77346 [1345-16-0

]

[68186-86-7

]

W100

B,C,D,E,F,G,H,J,K,

L,M,N,O,P,Q

Outstanding lightfastness,

chemical resistance

Ultramarine Blue

Blue 29 77007 [57455-37-5

]

1,2

W240

W240 A,C,E,G,H,K,L,M,N,

O,P,Q

F,I,J

Cobalt chromite

blue-green

spinel

Blue 36 77343 [68187-11-1

100

W100

B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,

L,M,N,O,P,Q

Alkali Blue G

Blue 56 42800 [6417-46-5

For printing inks needing

alkali and soap resistance

Indanthrone Blue Blue 60 69800

[81-77-6

]

120–160

O,P,Q

B,C,D,E,H,J,K,L,M,N

Alkali Blue, Reﬂex

Blue

Blue 61 42765:1 [1324-76-1

]

2–10

Poor alkali and soap

resistance

(Continued

)

318

Victoria Blue (CFA) Blue 62 42595:x

Violet Pigments

Rhodamine B

(PMA)

Violet 1:x 45170:x [63022-09-3

o20

Brilliant, color purity and tint

strength

Methyl Violet

(PTMA)

Violet 3 42535:2 [1325-82-2

]

1,3

15–30

DFL

5–10

A,D,H,J,N Printing inks with lustrous

appearance

Fugitive Methyl

Violet

Violet 3:3 42535:5 [68308-41-8

]

2–5

Methyl Violet

(PMA)

Violet 3:x 42535:x [67989-22-4

]

1,3

15–30

5–10

Standard purple for printing

inks

Cobalt violet

phosphate

Violet 14 77360 [13455-36-2

Decolorizer for clear and

white plastics

Ultramarine Violet

and Pink

Violet 15 77007 [12769-96-9

]

A,D,E,G,H,I,J,K,L,

M,N,O

B,C,P,Q

Counteracts yellowing in

plastics on heating

Manganese Violet

Violet 16 77742 [10101-66-3

Quinacridone

Violet

Violet 19 73900 [1047-16-1

]

1,2

120–320

80–120

I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q

A,B,C,D,E,H High-performance pigment

Crystal Violet

(CFA)

Violet 27 42535:3 [12237-62-6

]1 2

Benzimidazolone

Bordeaux HF3R

Violet 32 12517 [12225-08-0

]

1,2

K,L,N,O,P,Q

C,E,I,J,M Inks for packaging and metal

decorating

Cobalt lithium

violet phosphate

Violet 47 77363 [68610-13-9

Decolorizer for clear and

white plastics

Cobalt magnesium

red-blue borate

Violet 48 77352 [68608-93-5

]

Decolorizer for clear and

white plastics

Brown Pigments

Monoazo Brown

(copper)

Brown 5 15800:2 [16521-34-9

]

1,2

W160

W100

Amber effects in plastics

Magnesium ferrite Brown 11 77495

[12068-86-9

Diazo Brown

Brown 23

1,2

K,L,P,Q

A,M,

High-performance pigment

Chrome Antimony

Titanium Buff

Rutile

Brown 24 77310 [68186-90-3

W1000

W1000 A,C,D,E,F,H,J,K,L,N,

O,P,Q

G,I,M

Outstanding light, heat, and

chemical stability

Benzimidazolone

Brown HFR

Brown 25 12510 [6992-11-6

]

1,2

K,L,N,O,P,Q

C,M

Printing inks for metal

decorating; highly

transparent

Zinc iron chromite

brown spinel

Brown 33 77503 [68186-88-9

Excellent heat and light

resistance

Iron chromite

brown spinel

Brown 35 77501 [68187-09-7

Excellent heat and light

resistance

Metal Pigments

Aluminum Flake

Metal 1 77000 [7429-90-5

]

1,3

B,C,D,E,G,J,K,L,M,

N,O,P ,Q

Nonleaﬁng for decorative

inks, paper coatings

Copper powder,

bronze powder

Metal 2 77400 [7440-50-6

]

[7440-50-8

]

[7440-66-6

]

1,2

B,C,D,G,J,K,L,N,O,P,Q

E,I,M

Decorative printing inks for

packaging, labels

Key to application: 1, printing inks; 2, plastics;

3, paper and paper coatings.

Key to permanency failures: F, fades; D, darkens;

L, loses gloss; B, turns bluer; G, turns gray

or greener; Y, turns yellower; Z, bronzes.

Key to plastic: A, ABS; B, acetal; C, acrylic;

D, amino resins; E, cellulosics; F, ﬂuoroplastics;

G, nylons; H, phenol–formaldehyde; I, polycarbonat

e; J, polyester or alkyd; K, polyethylene, low

density; L,

polyethylene, high density; M, polypropylene;

N, polystyrene, general-purpose; O, polystyrene,

impact-resistant; P, ﬂexible vinyl; Q, rigid vin

yl.

Pigments having an FDA status.

319

bags, labels, metal cans, rigid containers, and decorative

foils. Table 2 highlights the pigments used for printing

(see Inks). Important qualities of pigments for printing

inks are contribution to printing properties (i.e., rheology

and bleeding), print appearance (i.e., the color has sales

appeal), and useful service life (i.e., resistance to fading

and chemicals). The advantage of optimizing particle size

to provide good rheology is frequently compromised by

simultaneously deteriorating coloristic properties. Such

changes may be prevented by a suitable pigment prepara-

tion or by predispersing a pigment in nitrocellulose resin

(NC chips) (2).

In general, most ink pigments can be utilized in most

types of inks; but there are minor differences in a pig-

ment’s performance that must occasionally be considered.

For example, pigments for lithographic inks must not

bleed in water or very mild inorganic acidic (phosphoric

acid) solutions. Glossy ﬁnishes require small-particle-size

pigments. Metal deco printing is a speciality area. Tradi-

tional inks, which are processed at temperatures of 1401C

and more, must be quite thermally stable to retain ther

color value during application. Printed metal sheets that

are to be used in food cans must be capable of being

sterilized in the presence of food without degradation (2).

Extender pigments are essentially transparent or

translucent and contribute to neither hiding power nor

color. They are formulated into inks to extend the covering

power of strong pigments and enhance the working prop-

erties (e.g., to increase viscosity without affecting color).

COLORANTS FOR PLASTICS

In selecting a colorant for plastics, in addition to the

colorant characteristics listed in Table 1, the resins, their

properties and compatibility, and the method by which

they are processed are critical factors. Because PVC and its

copolymers liberate acid at high temperature, acid-sensi-

tive colorants like cadmium reds and ultramarine blue

must be used with care. Hansa yellow tends to crock

(smudge) in polyethylene. In polyethylene, impurities in

pigments such as cobalt and manganese should be avoided.

Polyacetals and thermoplastic polyesters are sensitive to

moisture. Molten nylon acts as a strong acidic reducing

agent and can decolorize certain dyes and pigments.

Colorants must have enough heat stability to withstand

processing temperatures, which are sometimes very high

[e.g., B6001F(3161C)] for injection-molded polycarbonate.

Some organic pigments processed at 3501F(1771C) for

15 min begin to show signs of darkening, but some cad-

mium pigments can withstand 15001F(8161C) without

noticeable color change. When processing temperatures

are particularly high, the choices for colorants are few.

Colorants may also interact with other additives used in

the plastic such as heat and light stabilizers; for example,

sulfur-containing cadmium pigments react with the nickel-

bearing stabilizers used in some ﬁlm-grade polypropylenes.

Dispersion

Dispersing the pigment to develop color strength and

maximum optical properties is an extremely important

issue that is continually being addressed. Dispersion of

dyes is not as great a problem because of their solubilizing

nature. Pigments need to be properly wetted by vehicles or

the plastic medium. Mixing does not change size and

surface area of particles, dispersion does (3). Colorants

must be able to be uniformly dispersed in any plastic

system. If the system is unable to tolerate the shear

energy required to disperse a given colorant, no matter

how desirable the colorant may be, it is not usable in that

system. Poor dispersion can lead to processing difﬁculties

for thin ﬁlms. Agglomeration and aggregation in pigments

are due to many reasons, such as different particle sizes

and shapes, presence of soluble salts or impurities, and

improper grinding. Improvements in pigment dispersion

have been obtained through surface treatments of pig-

ments and better grinding techniques.

PIGMENTS FOR PAPER AND PAPERBOARD

Two reasons for the use of pigments, ﬁllers, and extender

pigments for paper goods are as follows: (a) to load or ﬁll

the sheet during manufacture to increase bulk and im-

prove such properties as opacity, printability, and bright-

ness and (b) to coat the paper to provide opacity, black out

defects, or color and provide a receptive surface for print-

ing. Table 3 lists some pigments and extender pigments

used in the manufacture of paper goods for packaging.

Organic pigments are used as paper coating wherever

improvements in ﬁnishing efﬁciency, sheet gloss, or print

gloss are important. They are used extensively in coated

folding boxboard and woodfree-coated printing papers (4).

Table 3. Some Pigments for Use in Paperboard and Paper

Filler Composition Refractive Index Brightness Use

Titanium dioxide (rutile,

anatase)

TiO

2.7 for rutile 98–99 Board, waxing stock, board

liner, paper, specialties

2.55 for anatase 98–99

Clay (kaolin) Aluminum silicate 1.87–1.98 80–85 Board, papers, specialties

Calcium carbonate (natural and

precipitated)

CaCO

1.56 95–97 Printing, cigarette papers

Talc Magnesium silicate 1.57 70–90 Board, printing papers

Gypsum CaSO

1.57–1.61 80–90 Boards, specialties

Diatomite (natural) Diatomaceous earth 1.40–1.46 65–75 Improves bulk and drainage

of board stocks

320 COLORANTS

SUPPLY OPTIONS

Colorants are supplied in a number of different forms.

Dry Powder. Pigments and dyes are sold in a dry

powder form. Pigments are ground to suitable work-

ing particle sizes for ink manufacture or for disper-

sion into a plastic. The maximum working particle

size of most dry pigments is about 44 mm. These

pigments should pass through a 325-mesh (44-mm)

screen with less than 1% retention.

Presscake Form. This is an undried form in which the

presscake may typically contain 25–50% solids. Press-

cake is used for the preparation of water-based inks.

Flushed Colors. Pigments are dispersed in a varnish

or mineral oil forming a paste that has a pigment

content of Z30%. The ﬂushing operation involves

exhanging water in a presscake for the organic

vehicle by a kneading action in a Sigma blade mixer.

Chip Dispersion. Pigments dispersed in resin with

little or no solvent content. Usually prepared by

milling on a two-roll mill.

Resin-Bonded Pigment. This is a dry ﬂush in which

the vehicle phase is a resin.

Easy-Dispersing Pigments and Stir-In Pigments. Pig-

ments treated with surfactants or polymeric materi-

als to make them readily dispersible in various ink

vehicles, particularly gravure ink types.

Color Concentrates. Colorant dispersed in resin that is

let down with virgin resin to make ﬁnal product. Color

concentrate is supplied in chip or pellet form. Liquid-

and paste-color concentrates are used for vinyls.

Slurry. Titanium dioxide and other white pigments or

extenders are supplied to the paper industry in this

manner.

REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS

In the United States, the FDA and USDA administer the

laws of interest to colorists. The Federal Food, Drug and

Cosmetic Act, the Federal Hazardous Substances Act, and

the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970 are relevant

FDA statutes. The Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry

Inspection Act of the USDA relate to colored plastics where

food contact is a concern. The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

(1938) was modiﬁed by the Food Additives Amendment

(1958) and the Color Additives Amendment (1960) (revised

in 2007). Pigments that have an FDA status are noted in

Table 2 (see Food, drug, and cosmetics regulations).

The regulations do not deal with colorants in printing

inks. Four groups of colorants are presently permitted in

the coloring of plastics for food, drugs, and cosmetics: (1)

certiﬁed colorants are those in the list of FD&C certiﬁed

dyes and alumina lakes; (2) puriﬁed nonaniline colors

include iron oxides, carbon black, and titanium dioxide

for use in and on plastics; (3) use of a noncertiﬁed colorant

may be petitioned—responsibilities for compliance with

regulations rests with user; and (4) a colorant is not

subject to the color-additive amendment if there is an

impermeable barrier between colorant and food, drug, or

cosmetics, and no chance of contact.

Product packaging constitutes about one-third of mu-

nicipal solid waste and is usually decorated with various

colors. Some of them containing heavy mtetals. The

Coalition of Northeast Governors developed a model to

regulate cadmium, hexavalent chromium, lead, and mer-

cury in packaging to a decreasing content, not leachability,

of 100 ppm. Currently, 19 states have enacted this legisla-

tion with some limited variations (5). Lead pigments and

other toxic pigments have been eliminated from inks for

food packaging. For nonfood packaging, the three major

lead pigments for inks are chrome yellow, molybdate

orange, and phloxine red. No other heavy metal pigments

are used in signiﬁcant quantities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. C. Schiek ‘‘Colorants’’ in The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging

Technology, 1st edition, CIBA-GEIGY Corporation, pp. 204–

217; in EPT, 2nd edition, pp. 242–256.

Cited Publications

1. Code of Federal Regulations, 21CFR 70.3, revised April 1,

2007.

2. W. Herbst and K. Hunger, Industrial Organic Pigments, 3rd

edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2004.

3. R. A. Eppler, ‘‘Colorants for Plastics’’ in Kirk-Othmer Encyclo-

pedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.

4. J. Blecschmidt, in H. Holick, ed., Handbook of Paper and

Paperboard, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2006, Chapter 2.

5. New York State Hazardous Packaging Law, New York State

Department of the Environment, www.dec.ny.gov, accessed

March 2008.

COMPRESSION MOLDING

INTRODUCTION

Compression molding is used to produce parts from ther-

mosetting plastics that cannot be processed by thermo-

plastic processing methods (see Blow molding; Extrusion;

Injection molding; Thermoforming). In compression mold-

ing, polymerization takes place in a closed mold. Under

heat and pressure, the materials ﬁll the mold cavity, and

with continued heat and pressure, the part hardens as

crosslinking takes place (see Polymer properties). The

irreversibility of the process rules out thermoplastic-

processing methods, but it also imparts excellent heat

resistance and dimensional stability to the part. These

properties are essential for many nonpackaging applica-

tions (e.g., electrical components, automotive and aircraft

body panels). The use of compression molding in packa-

ging is very limited. Thermosets rarely provide the best

balance of properties, and compression molding is not

economical for high-volume production.

Compression molding is sometimes used to prepare

thermoplastic test specimens. For example, in the ASTM

COMPRESSION MOLDING 321

D4703-93 method, thermoplastic resins in the form of

pellets are loaded into the mold, heated above their

melting points, formed, and cooled into a plaque or sheet

for making test specimens.

APPLICATIONS

Compression molding has some advantages compared to

injection molding, including lower tooling costs and fewer

stresses in the part, but design ﬂexibility and production

rates are limited (1). For many years, the only signiﬁcant

packaging application for thermosets was closures

(see Closures). The main application today remains screw

caps (2, 3). At one time, phenolic and urea–formaldehyde

molding compounds were the only plastics available for

the purpose. Also used today are melamine-formaldehyde

and polyester molding compounds (4).

A resurgence of interest in thermosets and compression

molding occurred in recent years because of the heat

required for ‘‘ovenable’’ packages. Compression-molded

glass-ﬁlled thermoset polyesters, which had been used

for some time for heat-and serve airline trays, moved

into the consumer market with the advent of frozen

dinners that could go from the freezer to the convection

or microwave oven and then to the table.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘‘Compression Molding’’ in The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging

Technology, 1st edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986,

pp. 217–218; 2nd edition, 1997, p. 256.

Cited Publications

1. G. A. Tanner, ‘‘Compression Molding,’’ in Modern Plastics

Encyclopedia, Vol. 61, no. 10a, 1984–1985.

2. J. C. Brennan and B. F. Day.,‘‘Packaging’’ in J. G. Brennan, ed.,

Food Processing Handbook, Wiley, VCH, Weinheim, Germany,

2006.

3. D. R. Bain and P. A. Giles, in D. R. Bain, ed., Technology of

Plastics Packaging for the Consumer Market, Shefﬁeld Aca-

demic Press, Shefﬁeld, UK, 2001, pp. 146–158.

4. M. Xanthas and D. B. Todd, ‘‘Plastics Processing,’’ Kirk–Oth-

mer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th edition, Vol. 19,

John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2006.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS: PALLET PATTERNS

BRAD LEONARD

Cape Systems, Inc., Allen,

Texas

THE PALLET PATTERN

A pallet pattern is a group of ﬁnished products in a single

layer that is organized onto a pallet base of slip-sheet. The

most common form of ﬁnished product container is the

corrugated shipping case. Multiple layers of product on a

pallet or slip-sheet are used to create a unitized pallet

load. The efﬁciency of the pallet pattern, as well as the

resulting pallet load, is determined by the quantity and

size of the product in the corrugated shipping case. For

example, a 16-in. 12-in. case gets 10 cases per layer in a

pallet pattern on a 48-in. 40-in. pallet surface. However,

a 16 1/8-in. 12-in. case can only get 8 cases per layer, a

20% decrease. Therefore, optimizing each case size, the

product inside, the pallet pattern, and the number of

layers can have a dramatic effect on the utilization of

space within the entire distribution system. Typically,

companies average 80–85% utilization on the pallet. This

underutilization of space offers many industries the op-

portunity to realize tremendous savings.

THE USE OF THE PALLET

Pallets were ﬁrst used for handling ﬁnished goods in the

distribution environment in the 1930s. Modern wooden

pallets were introduced on a larger scale during World

War II by the military. Then, in 1946, the food-processing

industry along with transportation companies, as well

as the pallet manufacturing industry, recommended

the adoption of the 40-in 32-in. and the 48-in. 40-in.

pallets.

Today, hundreds of millions of pallets are sold each year

to support the handling and movement of all types of

manufactured products. Pallets are produced in many

shapes and sizes; however, the most common size in North

America is 48 in. 40-in. The most common materials are

wood, plastic, corrugated board, and metal.

THE PALLET PATTERN PROCESS: MANUAL METHOD

Traditionally, companies used laborious manual methods

for calculating pallet patterns, and they used ‘‘pallet

pattern charts’’ and lookup tables to create very basic

styles. This manual method of calculation was slow and

inaccurate. Manual methods also proved to be inconsis-

tent. They considered only a few alternatives and were

narrow in scope, and communicating the results made

preplanning difﬁcult. With increasing mass-production

techniques and the growth of product distribution on

a nationwide basis, manual methods were simply

inadequate.

COMPUTERS IN PACKAGING

The earliest use of computers, in the traditional packaging

function, dates back to the early 1970s. At that time, the

mainframe computer was a large room-sized machine

used to crunch numbers for activities related to account-

ing, sales, and inventory control. Its use by the packaging

department was limited primarily to providing simple

pallet pattern conﬁgurations and a small amount of

secondary package design work. Both of these tasks

were performed without the use of scaled diagrams or

322 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS: PALLET PATTERNS

graphics. However, mainframe programs were expensive

and not readily available. Therefore, the computer did not

play a signiﬁcant role in packaging until much later.

The introduction of the ﬁrst PCs in the mid-1980s

brought about a very different opportunity as the use of

these personal computers became more prominent in the

business world. The PC, with the advantage of its small

size, ease of use, and computing power, brought many

changes. One of the most important changes was the quick

acceptance of its emerging role in the area of packaging,

where an ideal use was the creation of pallet patterns and

packaging design.

THE PALLET PATTERN PROCESS USING THE COMPUTER

In the packaging process, the pallet base is usually

considered to be ﬁxed in size and cannot be easily chan-

ged. However, there are many variables relating to the

loading of the pallet that can be evaluated to produce the

optimum pallet pattern. These parameters include the

maximum load height and weight, underhang and over-

hang requirements, minimum area and cube utilization,

the size of the corrugated case, and the dimension loaded

vertical on the pallet. The ﬁnal compression strength of

the corrugated case and the various pattern styles that

can be considered for each pattern type are also important

factors to be considered.

To add to these requirements, in 1988 a Joint Industry

Shipping Container Committee (drawn from the member-

ship of the Food Marketing Institute, the Grocers’ Asso-

ciation) published the Voluntary Industry Guidelines for

Dry Grocery Shipping Containers. These guidelines were

aimed at reducing the damage from poor palletization

standards. The two major components of these guidelines

were to standardize on the 48-in  40-in. pallet surface

without the use of any overhang. This move also prompted

other industries to adopt similar guidelines.

WHAT BENEFITS THE COMPUTER CAN PROVIDE

It is virtually impossible for the human mind or a simple

lookup chart to consider the combinations of all these

factors and individual user requirements. This is why

today’s computers and pallet loading programs are ideally

suited to the task.

In a PC-based pallet pattern/loading program, the user

simply types in the basic information required for the

speciﬁc analysis. This information usually consists of the

corrugated case size, the dimension vertical for stacking

on the pallet, the weight of the ﬁlled case, the pallet size

and type, allowable underhang and overhang, the max-

imum ﬁnished load height and weight, and the pattern

types to be considered. This information is then saved in a

ﬁle format that can be retrieved for later use and from

which the various solutions are generated.

From the information provided by the computer, the

user can then determine which pattern arrangement will

best meet their needs. Hundreds, even thousands, of

potential solutions can be considered in the process. The

computer’s calculations are consistently accurate and

enable rapid evaluation of all patterns and load plans

that ﬁt within the restrictions applied by the user.

From the list of available solutions, the user can select

one or more options for viewing and printing (both text

and graphical reports) showing the exact location of each

case, the layout of the cases within the layer, and the

arrangement of each layer on the pallet. After viewing a

satisfactory solution, the user can then use the software to

model the compression strength performance of the corru-

gated case.

Using modern computers to calculate the pallet pat-

terns is highly effective. Studies have shown that a 10%

improvement is pallet load utilization is common. Often

improvements are much higher than 10%. This is espe-

cially important because these improvements directly

affect the proﬁtability of an organization. In larger orga-

nizations, such savings can be many hundreds of thou-

sands of dollars annually.

THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERIZED PALLET PATTERNS

Today’s users of computerized pallet pattern/loading pro-

grams are looking for even more sophistication and reality

in their ability to create reports and share this informa-

tion with others.

Current pallet loading programs are far more sophisti-

cated. They are used throughout the world to evaluate

different pallet pattern options, the best pallet size to use,

and which packing medium will do the best job. All of

these tasks are now calculated in seconds. Each solution

created can be viewed as three-dimensional color dia-

grams. Graphics technology now allows users to select

the rotation and stacking of individual pattern layers.

Even the layout of individual cases can be edited to meet

any special pattern layout requirements. High-quality,

very detailed and customized reports can be produced in

seconds.

Modern programs can also be used to export palletizing

information directly to other programs. Examples are word-

processing applications, spreadsheets, speciﬁcation sys-

tems, manufacturing systems, and CAD programs. Infor-

mation from pallet loading programs can even provide

the necessary information to drive robotic and mechanical

palletizing equipment. Such information can then be

shared with other departments to create a ﬁnished product

speciﬁcation, which can be easily communicated, controlled,

and monitored for future updates and modiﬁcations.

Manufacturing companies are now beginning to under-

stand the importance of multiple product pallet patterns,

for retail store shelf replenishment and as end-aisle dis-

plays for promotional use. Programs to deal with these

‘‘multiproduct

loading’’ situations work

with many of the

same inputs as standard pallet loading software. The one

exception is that many different products are calculated

on the same pallet at the same time, adding an extra level

of complexity to the ﬁnal solution.

For many multinational companies, the key to future

growth is importing and exporting their products to or

from other countries. This means considering how to

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS: PALLET PATTERNS 323

palletize their products on at least two different pallet

sizes: one for domestic use and one for import and export.

This type of application is also ideally suited to modern

computers and pallet loading programs.

Technology is now available that allows pallet loading

programs to merge artwork and graphic images onto the

surfaces of both cases and pallets. This brings a new and

extremely powerful ‘‘visual reality’’ to the world of compu-

terized pallet patterns and allows the most comprehensive

pallet pattern reports and speciﬁcations to be created ‘‘at

the touch of a button.’’

SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability is a key to the future role of product

palletization, and the use of the computer has never

been needed more. The computer can model thousands

of palletizing alternatives, across a wide range of sustain-

ability variables, and quickly determine the most sustain-

able alternative. Companies will soon be measured by

a number of sustainable benchmarks, one of which is

efﬁcient palletization. Using the current sustainability

scorecard, cube utilization and transportation, two major

elements of optimum palletization, count toward 25% of

the total scorecard value.

SUMMARY

The use of computers for creating pallet patterns has come

a very long way in the past 30 years. Because of the

increasing pressures for modern industries to continue to

change and become more competitive, there are still many

opportunities that lie ahead, such as the combining of

product design, packaging, and palletizing, to speed time

to market. Computer models are now being used to

explore the entire product life cycle, from start to ﬁnish,

in an attempt to drive all the unnecessary costs out of the

product. As technology continues to advance and compu-

ters become more powerful, the computerization of pallet

patterns and their impact on the total business operation

will grow in many directions.

CONSULTING

HOWARD R. LEARY

Howard R. Leary Associates

Consultants are available in many technical and commer-

cial areas of packaging. There are as many specialties

among packaging consultants as there are disciplines in

the packaging industries. They are independent experts

who provide a temporary resource to ﬁll the needs of a

company for various reasons and purposes. This article

deﬁnes who consultants are, what they can do for an

organization, where they can be found, and how to best

use them, evaluate them, and do business with them.

ROLES OF A PACKAGING CONSULTANT

There are any ways that an independent packaging expert

can help an organization in its packaging-related busi-

ness. The consultant brings skill and experience as well as

a fresh point of view to a project or problem. The con-

sultant’s expertise can go to work for large and small

organizations in a variety of ways:

Solve Problems. A company may have a need to resolve

a concern or pursue and opportunity that can be most

effectively addressed with outside expertise. Examples

may be package failures in the ﬁeld, loss of packaging

line efﬁciency or the desire for higher efﬁciency, quality

issues with packaging material, material incompatibility

with packaging equipment, changing or revising the

package to make it more appealing to the consumer,

complying with regulations, or the desire to reduce packa-

ging material cost.

Because the consultant is independent and perceived

as an expert, he or she has certain situational power. An

independent consultant can have the ability to convince

members of an organization of the effectiveness of a

solution better than another member of the organization

can because the outside expertise validates the informa-

tion. Often a factor in an operation is overlooked or

generally accepted, and a fresh view from a consultant

can expose the value of that factor.

The consultant has had many different experiences,

usually in different industries. People working in a com-

pany generally do not have the opportunity for such varied

experience, so the consultant can bring a fresh point of

view and different assumptions to a situation that can

lead to new and useful ideas.

Typically, a consultant would be hired ﬁrst to investi-

gate the issue and prepare a written report of recom-

mended action. This might involve monitoring the

packaging line operation, doing store or warehouse

checks, testing package samples, evaluating the proﬁ-

ciency of line personnel, working with a material supplier

on process control or other forms of evaluation. Often the

implementation of the recommended action is carried out,

led or supported by the consultant under a separate

contract.

Augment the Packaging Staff. For companies with in-

house package development or packaging engineering

staffs, occasions arise when extra help is needed tempora-

rily. This could be a major project that brings a greater

workload than the group can absorb without falling

behind on other committed work, or the loss of a key

member of the group. In such a case a consultant can

bridge the gap. Also if a major project employs a form of

package different from the usual, the consultant can

provide expertise in the new area for the current project

as well as train the staff members who will provide

continuing support.

True consultants will work on a project basis, according

to a deﬁned scope of work. The consultants need not work

in the client’s ofﬁce, except for occasional meetings. It is

wise to have a company contact person to handle the

324 CONSULTING

internal communication, so that the consultant can con-

centrate on the technical matters, in which case the client

will get the most value for the fees spent.

Hiring a consultant to ﬁll a temporary need may be a

wise choice compared to a new hire, not only because there

is no commitment of continued employment but because

the company has use of a highly skilled expert.

Be the Packaging Staff. Some companies may not have a

permanent staff devoted to developing packages or design-

ing packaging lines, either because they are relatively

small, they are in a startup situation, or their normal

production historically didn’t required new things. The

need for a packaging specialist may be for a special

project, in which case the consultant would work to a

speciﬁed scope of work to achieve the goals of the project,

such as design a new package or a new packaging line. In

the case of a startup company, the objectives may be to

design packages for new products, then source them, and

then set up a packaging operation, which could be set up

as separate consulting contracts. For a company that has

occasional need for packaging technology support, keeping

a consultant on a retainer may be the best arrangement.

Set Up a Packaging Design or Engineering Department.

Many packaging consultants got their experience working

in companies. If a company wants to start a package

development or engineering function, or evaluate the

way it is organized within the company, an experienced

consultant can ﬁll this need.

Assessment. Many companies see a need to evaluate

what their company has as compared to what they could

or should have. A consultant can be brought in who has

had experience with other businesses to assess the shelf

impact of the package, efﬁciency of the packaging opera-

tion, cost effectiveness of the packages, and so on. The

consultant typically would examine the issues in question

and prepare a report with recommendations. Implement-

ing the recommendations may then be a second consulting

contract.

In a case like this, the consultant’s varies experience

makes him or her uniquely qualiﬁed to achieve the desired

result.

Source for Ideas. Many marketing-oriented businesses

are always looking for new ideas to improve the accep-

tance of their products. ‘‘Creative design’’ consultants will

brainstorm a product application and develop presenta-

tion drawings and/or models for review. These consultants

are typically industrial or graphic designers with creative

skill and a penchant for consumer appeal issues.

Provide Focus on an Issue. A problem or concern can

sometimes persist in an organization and not be effec-

tively addressed within an organization. In such cases,

bringing in an outside expert can highlight the issue and

draw attention to it. Consultants tend to be listened to

more than regular members of the organization are,

probably because they are a novelty or because they’re

being paid for their opinion. The consultant is

independent of any group or department within the

organization so he or she is free to dig into the roots of

the issue wherever they lie. Often a fresh look from an

outside perspective can easily see factors that can be less

obvious to insiders. Examples of issues to which this might

apply are (a) low-quality performance in a packaging or

package manufacturing operation and (b) unsatisfactory

packaging line efﬁciency or waste level.

Expert Witness. Many packaging consultants make

themselves available as expert witnesses for attorneys.

They investigate the evidence on the matter in litigation

and provide an expert’s report. In some cases they will

testify in court or in deposition.

Validation. In regulated industries, particularly phar-

maceutical and medical device, all packages and packa-

ging machinery must be formally validated. Some

consultants provide validation-related services such as

preparation and execution of functional requirements

speciﬁcations, preparation and execution of factory accep-

tance test protocols and qualiﬁcation protocols, engineer-

ing studies to determine qualifyable process parameters,

and package speciﬁcations for New Drug Approval

submissions.

TYPES OF CONSULTANTS

There are various sources of consulting services, and each

has its characteristic strengths and situations in which

they can best serve. Different consultant types and their

applications are described below.

Independent Individual Consultants. Experienced pack-

age developers or engineers sometimes choose to work

independently as consultants. These are typically people

that have gained experience in a company that pack-

ages or manufactures packages. They could be package

developers, machinery engineers, marketers, graphic de-

signers, industrial designers, logistics experts, regulatory

specialists, polymer chemists, or other practitioners of

other packaging-related technology. They typically work

on limited-term deﬁned projects, although some will

accept longer-term assignments. When a project requires

expertise beyond that of the consultant, he or she will

bring in ‘‘associates,’’ other consultants that will share

the project to provide a complete solution for the client.

When you see a consulting ﬁrm listed as ‘‘(name) &

Associates’’ the ﬁrm is usually a single person who uses

a network of other consultants. This can be a very effective

approach, because the consultants brought in are known

the lead consultant

to be effective in their area, and the

lead consultant is free to pick the best people for the

project.

Independent consultants are best for creative ideas and

ﬂexibility in their work approach and business arrange-

ments. They have limited hours per week availability, so

they may not be able to handle very large projects. They

can be effective on large projects as advisors who bring

special expertise. When using an independent consultant,

CONSULTING 325

you know that the person whose expertise was the reason

for selecting them is doing the work.

Independent consultants should be deﬁned as people

who are dedicated to consulting as a practice, as compared

to people who seek to consult until a new position in a

company comes along, or who moonlight after hours. A

full-time professional consultant will provide the most

reliable results for a client.

Small Consulting Firms. Some consultants will form

small companies that have support staff. One or two

consultants typically lead the technical work, and others,

such as designers or technicians, perform tasks that

complete the project work. The support staff generally

works under close direction of the lead consultants.

These ﬁrms are similar in their creativity and ﬂexibil-

ity to independent individuals, but can usually handle

more or larger projects.

Large Consulting Firm. There are no large consulting

ﬁrms that specialize only in packaging, but there are

numerous large engineering and construction ﬁrms that

have packaging groups. For these ﬁrms, packaging is

usually part of a larger project, such as the design and

construction of a new manufacturing plant. These ﬁrms

also have validation specialists who can provide packa-

ging system validation specialists.

College Professors. Professors at the colleges that offer

packaging degree programs offer themselves as consul-

tants and sometimes employ students to assist in testing

activities. They generally work on primary technology

investigations as compared to implementing projects for

manufacturing facilities for example.

Material Suppliers. Some companies that supply packa-

ging materials offer technical services to large customers

at no charge as a means to bring in or support sales. This

work can often be effective and useful, but it is, of course,

not independent of speciﬁc commercial interest. If

the customer has a strong technical packaging leader in

control of these activities, they can provide useful results.

If there is an issue involved that requires independent

judgment, an independent consultant may be required

who has no commercial ties.

Who Are Not True Consultants. Commissioned sales

representatives or brokers sometimes present themselves

as consultants in that they provide design expertise to

potential customers. These people can take care of the

packaging needs for a customer, helping them make

decisions and selling them materials or machinery. These

ﬁrms are primarily sales organizations and should not be

classiﬁed as consultants.

Contract engineers and designers should not be classi-

ﬁed as consultants. They work regular hours at the

customer’s ofﬁces in place of permanent employees, rather

than consult on a project basis.

As mentioned previously, people between jobs or moon-

lighters should not be classiﬁed as full-time professional

consultants.

VALUE OF CONSULTING SERVICES

Most consultants charge by the hour, and in the case of a

ﬁxed price contract the price is based on the estimated

hours at the consulting rate. Rates are generally higher

than the hourly pay rate of a company employee, which

can give the impression that the consultant is expensive.

If used properly, however, the consultant can offer very

good value for the fees spent.

The consultant will only spend the time required to

meet the objective set, assuming that he or she is allowed

to work independently of the client’s location and ofﬁce

hours, so the time is used efﬁciently. He or she should have

a high level of skill for the task assigned and as such

should be capable of achieving the result in the least

amount of time practical. The company, of course, has no

overhead expense for the time spent by the consultant.

Most independent consultants have a good deal of experi-

ence and expertise, which in most cases is at a very high

level compared to less experienced packaging profes-

sionals employed in a company packaging group.

DOING BUSINESS

A good business arrangement will assure satisfactory

results from a consulting assignment. Requirements and

expectations should be clear for both parties. The ﬁrst step

is to deﬁne the scope of work to be performed. The detail of

this depends upon the need. If a project is in the concep-

tion stage, such as the creation of a new package, the scope

may be to deﬁne what needs to be done to bring it from

idea to production. In a more mature project, a detailed

scope of activities would be appropriate, such as design

line layout, prepare bid speciﬁcations, write package

speciﬁcations, and so on. Based on these requirements,

the consultant should develop a proposed budget to per-

form the speciﬁed tasks. A good proposal should list the

tasks speciﬁed. This will help if requirements change

during the project’s course, in which case the consultant

should advise the client in advance if changing require-

ments affect the budget.

There may be situations when research is required to

enable the consultant to develop the desired proposal. An

example might be a requirement to improve a packaging

process, where it is necessary for the consultant to spend a

day at the client’s plant, including travel, and a day

developing an approach to the project. In such a case it

would be appropriate for the consultant to charge for this,

and the recommended plan in the proposal is something of

value that the client has even if the consultant is not

hired.

Consultants generally work on a time and expense

basis

, charging for

the actual time spent and any costs

incurred. This does not mean that the budget cannot be

controlled. Companies generally issue a purchase order

for the proposed budget amount; and if invoicing exceeds

the purchase order amount, it won’t be paid.

Commonly, the consultant will require a down payment

to provide cash ﬂow, especially on longer projects. Inde-

pendent consultants are individuals that need a steady

326 CONSULTING

income, so they are not in a position to wait for project

completion for payment.

Sometimes a consultant will be willing to offer a ﬁxed

price for a project if the efforts required are deemed to be

predictable. This is typically when the consulting is part of

a larger project done by a large engineering ﬁrm. The

consultant will be careful to clearly deﬁne speciﬁed deli-

verables in such a case.

A retainer is a regular fee, usually paid monthly, to

retain a consultant for occasional work not deﬁned in a

purchase order. The consultant is treated as a vendor, not

an employee. This can work in a situation where both

parties know that the needs and required work level are

fairly consistent. A retainer arrangement can be conveni-

ent but lacks control of work scope and spending, so it is

not frequently used.

QUALIFYING A PROSPECTIVE CONSULTANT

A consultant should be someone whose opinion you re-

spect and value. To be sure that that will be the case, his or

her qualiﬁcations should be investigated. One can ask the

consultant what ideas might be pursued for the subject

project, how his or her experience was gained in the

relevant technical area, what other project work he or

she may have done that have similarity, and what other

clients he or she has worked for. Get references and ask

them if the work was satisfactory. The consultant should

be able to provide a resume of experience for your

examination.

An ethical consultant will not take on a project for

which he or she does not have the proper skill and

knowledge. In such a case, he or she should recommend

another consultant that will be reliable in that area. On

some projects, consultants can join together to provide a

complete solution.

If one has been consulting for a long period of time, that

would indicate a professional level of capability and a

commitment to the profession.

When considering a ﬁrm rather than an individual

consultant, ﬁnd out who will be doing the work and/or

who is in responsible charge of it. Check the qualiﬁcations

of those people.

WHERE TO FIND THEM

Referrals are the most reliable source of good consultants.

If you know someone willing to recommend one based on

positive experience, the selection process is simpliﬁed and

short. If this is not the case, there are sources that list or

ﬁnd consultants.

Searchable Internet directories are available that in-

clude packaging materials, machinery, and services, in-

cluding consulting. Packaging trade publications sponsor

these (Food & Drug Packaging, Packaging Digest), as well

as PMMI (Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute)

and ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials).

Thomas Register includes packaging consultants among

their all-encompassing industry lists.

There are services that have consultants’ abilities on

ﬁle and locate them for clients, both industrial and legal

IMSD Expert Services and others. These ﬁrms typically

bill the client and pay the consultant directly.

IoPP (the Institute of Packaging Professionals) has a

Consultants’ Council that hosts a directory accessible

through the institute’s web site (www.iopp.org) or directly

at www.packagingconsultants.org. The directory lists the

council’s members by expertise and industry served, and

requests for information or proposals can be sent to the

members of the group. All the consultants listed have been

qualiﬁed by the council to be committed experienced

consultants who agree to uphold the Consultants’ Coun-

cil’s code of ethics.

If the requirements are of a research-based nature, the

colleges and universities that have packaging programs

can refer professors for consulting in their ﬁeld of

specialty.

CONSUMER RESEARCH

JOSEPH O. EASTLACK,JR.

Saint Joseph’s University,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

It goes without saying that strong and effective packaging

has to be an integral part of the marketing mixture. A

strong package is equity. A strong package, sells a product,

and a strong package justiﬁes premium pricing.

But who deﬁnes a strong package? The shopper, be-

cause the shopper is the individual who ultimately picks

up and buys the product or quickly bypasses or totally

ignores it. From both the shoppers’ and the marketers’

point of view, the shopping experience is a battle. On the

one hand, the shopper has to battle through competing

items, through heavy shopper trafﬁc, and through the

checkout lines. The marketer, on the other hand, has to

break through the clutter to get a few precious seconds of

consideration. Several startling facts about shopping in

the United States are now available. Examples include the

following:

. The average supermarket contains over 25000 items,

with 17000 new products being introduced each year.

. The average shopper is spending approximately

24 min in his/her normal shopping trip. This time

translates to 1440 s to consider 25000 items. Not

surprisingly, approximately one third of the packages

on the shelf were being completely ignored. Even

with more than 8200 products by-passed, the U.S.

supermarket shopper still is faced with 16000+ items

being considered in 1440 s; not much time for a

marketer to sell his/her product.

In the United States, it is now generally acknowledged

that 80% of the decisions made in today’s supermarkets

are in-store decisions and, of equal importance, 60% are

CONSUMER RESEARCH 327